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COEmiGHT DEPOSIT. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



BY THE SAME AUTHOR 

The Prescription 

By O. A. Wall, Ph.G., M.D. 275 pages, 6x9, 
with illustrations. Price, cloth, $2.50. Fourth 
edition, completely revised, rewritten and 
enlarged. This is without doubt the best 
book on the prescription ever written. The 
subject is therapeutically, pharmaceutically, 
grammatically and historically considered. 

Lessons in Latin 



By O. A. Wall, Ph.G., M.D. 148 pages, 6x9 
Price, cloth, $1.50. Second revised edition 
This is a valuable book for physicians, nurses 
pharmacists, and anyone who wishes to ac 
quire a knowledge of medical and pharma 
ceutical Latin. It is especially adapted for 
classroom as well as self-study. 



HANDBOOK 
OF 

PHARMACOGNOSY 



BY 

OTTO A. WALL, M.D., Ph.G. 

Professor of Materia Medica, Pharmacognosy and Botany in the St. Louis College of 
Pharmacy; Member of the Committee for Revision of the Pharmacopoeia of the 
United States, 1880-1890 and 1890-1900; Second Vice-President of the Convention 
for the Revision of the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1900-1910; Pre- 
siding Officer of the United States Pharmacopoeia Convention of 1910; 
One of the Authors of the "Companion to the United States Pharma- 
copoeia;" Author of "Lessons in Latin," "The Prescription," etc. 



FOURTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED 



ST. LOUIS 
C. V. MOSBY COMPANY 

1917 






Copyright, 1917, By C. V. Mosby Company 



APR 17 1918 



©CLA494H40 



3 

Press of 



C. V. Mosby Company 
St. Louis 






PREFACE 



The object of this book is mainly to serve as notes on pharma- 
cognosy (Waarenkunde) for students in colleges of pharmacy, for 
students preparing for state board of pharmacy examinations, 
and for the everyday exigencies of the retail pharmacist. 

No student can listen to a course of lectures and derive full 
benefit therefrom unless he makes memoranda of the most salient 
features of the lectures. On the other hand, many teachers main- 
tain that while the student is making note of some fact or other, 
he will give superficial attention or miss altogether something 
else about which the lecturer is meamvhile speaking, so that the 
advantage of "taking notes" is offset by the information lost 
while taking them. This handbook is intended to take the place 
of notes which a diligent student might possibly write down for 
himself, so that during the lectures he can give undivided atten- 
tion to the words of the lecturer, and to the illustrations and 
specimens shown. 

This handbook also serves as a skeleton of the science of phar- 
macognosy, presenting only those main facts which a student 
should make an effort to remember, and around which he can 
later gather and arrange further knowledge that may be ac- 
quired in post-graduate study; irrelevant descriptions and illu- 
strations of plants from which drugs are derived, etc., are there- 
fore omitted, and the illustrations represent the drugs them- 
selves, as far as possible, in natural size, and are intended to take 
the place of a collection of drugs as nearly as possible. Histo- 
logical details that are not necessary in recognizing (crude) 
drugs are not made prominent, and many of the sections repre- 
sent the appearance that can be observed with the naked eye, 
or by aid of a simple lens magnifying from five to ten diameters, 
and by reflected light ; the structure which can thus be seen is 
sufficient to enable one to identify the drugs, and this is, there- 
fore, all that is necessary or of direct practical use in pharma- 
cognosy. 

7 



8 PREFACE 

As the description of a drug and its recognition by its physical 
characteristics is in no degree dependent on its recognition as 
"official" in a pharmacopoeia, no mention is made of its being 
"official" or merely "officinal;" in this regard this handbook 
applies equally well to any pharmacopoeia, or to all pharma- 
copoeias. As every student of pharmacy must have his pharma- 
copoeia, that is where he must seek the information whether a 
drug is official or not; the pharmacognosist, as a pharmacognosist, 
is not interested in this question; he is interested only in the ques- 
tion whether a drug occurs in the drug trade or not. 

The system adopted is based on the general principles of mod- 
ern pharmacognosy as established and first published in Europe 
by Schleiden and Berg, and in this country by Maisch; but in 
many details the arrangement is original. The numbering of the 
groups, and the short synopsis at the head of each group, has 
been found of great practical value and convenience in the actual 
work done with the aid of this system by the students in the 
author's own classes. 

The author submits the book to the kind consideration of the 
pharmaceutical public with the hope that it may contribute 
towards popularizing the study of pharmacognosy and lead many 
to become interested in this useful branch of knowledge. 

0. A. Wall. 

St. Louis, 1917. 



PHARMACOGNOSY 



INTRODUCTION 

The medical profession is divided into two branches: physicians 
who prescribe for the sick, and pharmacists who dispense the 
medicines. This division of labor has existed for thousands of 
years, probably because experience has taught that this arrange- 
ment is better and safer than when the same person prescribes and 
dispenses also. 

To heal the sick has always been the aim of the medical profes- 
sion. Healing the sick presupposes an organism which is endowed 
with life, and the physician must study both the organism and its 
environments in order that he may intelligently treat any depar- 
ture from health. 

Certain rudimentary studies are necessary for all learned men, 
whatever their professions may be. These studies are comprised 
in the phrase, "good, common school education" (better still, "col- 
legiate education"), and include the "three R's," grammar, his- 
tory, geography (including physical geography), physics or nat- 
ural philosophy and the rudiments of the Latin language. 

The studies of special interest to the medical profession are- 
Physics — Chemistry — Microscopy 

Organism f Structure : Anatomy. 

in \ # j Coarse. 

Health (Action: PHy*iology{ Microseopical (Hlstology) . 

f f Coarse. 

Organism I Structure: Pathological ^ atom y j M i croscopica i f 

Disease ) Action: Pathology. 

[ Treatment : Pharmacology. 

FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES 

Physics or Natural Philosophy treats of the mechanical laws 
and molecular forces. There is no absolute line of distinction be- 
tween this study and — 

11 



12 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Chemistry, which treats of the atomic constitution of matter 
and explains the composition of all material things and the 
changes that may take place in the atomic combinations. 

Microscopy is not, strictly speaking, a science, but rather an 
art, because it teaches the use of the microscope and its various 
accessories, but the knowledge it imparts is not of use only to the 
medical profession, but is of equal value to every scientist and of 
interest to every educated person. 

These three studies may be called the foundation on which is 
to be built up the superstructure of a thorough scientific educa- 
tion in any department of physical sciences. 

SPECIAL STUDIES 

Anatomy teaches the structure of living organisms ; human 
anatomy treats of the organs and structure of the human body. 
There is no sharp limit between "coarse anatomy" (structures 
that can be seen with the unaided eye) and "microscopical an- 
atomy," or "histology," (requiring the use of the microscope) 
and this division is one mainly of convenience. 

Histology treats of the microscopical or cellular structure of 
living organisms. Human histology, therefore, treats of the cel- 
lular elements and tissues of the human body. 

Physiology treats of the processes of life — healthy organisms ; 
in health the various cells, tissues and organs act harmoniously 
together. In youth assimilation of food exceeds waste and the 
organism grows until it reaches maturity; then for a time as- 
similation and waste balance each other, until age approaches, 
when Avaste gradually gains over assimilation, the tissues lose 
their vigor and a gradual decay sets in which finally results in 
death from old age. This is the healthy, normal destiny of the 
living organism. 

Histology and physiology are so intimately related to each 
other that it is impossible to treat of one without speaking of 
the other, and the two branches of study are therefore usually 
taught together. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 13 

When^he normal harmony of action in the body is disturbed, 
we call t*he resulting condition "disease." 

Pathological Anatomy is the study of the changes that are pro- 
duced in the normal anatomy by the processes of disease; some 
of these changes are macroscopic and can be seen with the un- 
aided eye, while the changes in the minuter structures, as in cells 
or tissues, require the aid of the microscope for recognition ; this 
latter is generally referred to as "cellular pathology." Patho- 
logical anatomy is the anatomy of the body in disease. 

Pathology bears the same relation to pathological anatomy 
that physiology has to normal anatomy. It describes the actions 
of the organs or tissues in disease. 

Any or all of these branches of study may be subdivided or 
specialized according to the needs of the physician. 

The physician must know the human body in health so that he 
may recognize those departures from the normal that constitute 
sickness. He is thus enabled to make a diagnosis, i. e., he can say 
what is the nature of the abnormal or diseased condition. The 
prognosis is the foretelling of the probable course of the disease. 

But the object of all study on the part of physicians and phar- 
macists is to cure the patient, and the treatment of disease requires 
a knowledge of — 

Pharmacology, the science of remedies and remedial measures. 
It is a comprehensive term and in its widest sense includes the 
study of everything that has, or is supposed to have, or that can 
have any influence in curing disease in every possible aspect ; 
an inquiry into the efficacy or meffieacy of prayers or laying on 
of hands is as legitimately within the scope of pharmacology as a 
study of the source, preparation or action of calomel or quinine. 
The term Materia Meclica is often used as a synonym for pharma- 
cology, but a fairer distinction of the term would limit its appli- 
cation to material things, to "medical materials." 

T.he term "pharmacology" is frequently applied wrongly to a 
study of the action of drugs and medicines, which latter study is 
properly named "pharmaco-dynamics. " 

Pharmacology demands a knowledge of several important sub- 
sidiary branches of knowledge. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Theoretical. 



Pharmacology 
(Materia Medica) 



[Theoretic; 
Chemistry i Practical. 

( Zoology. 
Pharmacognosy I Botany. 

[ Microscopy, 
f Theoretical. 
Pharmacy { Praetical . 

_ _ .1 General I 

Pharmaco-Dynamics >~ . , [Therapeutics. 

While anatomy, physiology, pathology, etc., are of more inter- 
est to the physician, a general knowledge of these studies is also 
nece'ssary for the pharmacist so that he may more fully under- 
stand those branches of the medical science which more closely 
concern him. A student of pharmacy should acquire at least as 
much knowledge on these subjects as can be obtained from the 
careful study of some good college physiology, which treats of 
these subjects in a simple, plain and compendious manner. 

The scheme of studies enumerated under Pharmacology is of 
direct and great importance to the pharmacist, even more so than 
to the physician, with the single exception of pharmaco-dynamics, 
which is of greater importance to the physician and of subordinate 
use to the pharmacist. 

Chemistry and Microscopy we have already considered. In 
colleges of pharmacy these studies are not only of as general a 
nature as in technical schools, but are taught with additional 
special reference to the pharmacists' work. 

Medicines are material substances, which may either be taken 
into the system or applied locally, and which, when in contact 
with living tissues, can alter the action of cells or tissues in such 
a manner as to cure disease. What may at one time and in one 
dose be a medicine, may under other circumstances or in a dif- 
ferent dose prove to be a poison. 

Medicines are prepared from organic or inorganic materials. We 
often read the sign "Drugs and Chemicals." Chemistry, as 
taught in colleges of pharmacy, treats of the general science, and 
of the individual inorganic and synthetic chemicals that are used 
as medicines. 

Pharmacognosy is the knowledge of drugs; drugs are the 
organic substances used in medicine and in the arts in the crude 
form in which they are brought into trade. Pharmacognosy 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 15 

teaches us how to recognize or identify drugs and how to deter- 
mine their quality. 

Drugs are of either animal or vegetable origin. A study of 
animal drugs, requires some knowledge of zoology, but as the 
animal drugs are of subordinate value or importance, zoology need 
not be studied to any great extent. Vegetable drugs are of 
vastly greater importance and therefore a knowledge of 

Botany is necessary to an understanding of pharmacognosy. 
The pharmacognosist must be able to recognize the part of plant 
which constitutes the drug, and he must not only be familiar 
with its coarse but also with its microscopical structure, and the 
value of a study of microscopy for the pharmacognosist cannot be 
exaggerated ; in fact, pharmacognosy in the modern sense is an im- 
possibility without a knowledge of microscopical technologj^ and 
of the cellular constitution of plants, or structural botany. 

Pharmacy is the science, art and business of preparing, com- 
pounding and dispensing medicines. Pharmacists constitute a 
learned profession because they must study a wide scope of 
sciences or studies in order to qualify themselves for their calling; 
pharmacy as a profession is not inferior to medicine, and the 
medieval arrogant conceit of a pharmacist being "ye hande- 
mayden," or "ye cooke" of "ye physician" ceased to have sense 
or meaning centuries ago. The tendency of modern times is spe- 
cialization, and the pharmacist is a specialist in the medical pro- 
fession in the same sense as the surgeon, the oculist, the gyne- 
cologist or any other specialist; the specialist is not superior, 
neither is he inferior, to the general practitioner, but they all 
belong to the same profession, with equal honors, each working 
in his particular sphere, doing his special work for the ameliora- 
tion and cure of pain and sickness. 

Pharmacy is an art because theoretical knowledge alone will 
not make a man a good pharmacist but he must have acquired 
the necessary manipulative skill in laboratory work and in dis- 
pensing. We have therefore a branch of theoretical pharmacy 
or of the Principles of Pharmacy, and another of Practical Phar- 
macy or Pharmaceutical Laboratory Work. Pharmacy in its 
dealings with the public is a business, subject to the commercial 
laws that govern and control business in all other directions. 



16 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Business tact and talent are therefore as necessary as theoretical 
and practical professional training, to insure success. 

Pharmaco-Dynamics treats of the actions or effects of reme- 
dies, of the power or force or influence of all remedial measures. 
General pharmaco-dynamics treats of the action of groups of medi- 
cines, as for instance of cathartics, antiperiodics, tonics, etc., while 
special pharmaco-dynamics treats of the actions of individual medi- 
cines, and enables us to choose the particular one remedy or com- 
bination of remedies that seems to be most appropriate in any given 
case. Pharmaco-dynamics investigates the action of remedies on 
the healthy as well as on the sick body, so that the action of a 
remedy may be understood in all possible bearings. 

The application of all the knowledge of the physician for the 
purpose of giving relief or of curing disease in the case of the in- 
dividual patient is Therapeutics, a branch of pharmaco-dynamics 
that treats of the use of remedies in the concrete individual cases 
that a physician is called to attend. Therapeutics is the culmina- 
tion, the end and aim of all medical studies, and in the widest and 
fullest sense such studies as Surgery, Obstetrics, Gynecology, or 
the use of medicines, baths, electricity, etc., are merely specialized 
branches of Therapeutics, of the Art of Curing or Healing. 

The pharmacist, then, must thoroughly study Chemistry, 
(theoretical and practical), Botany (structural and microscop- 
ical), Microscopy, Pharmacy and Pharmacognosy, and moderately 
thoroughly also Pharmaco-Dynamics, including Posology, or the 
doses of medicines, and in addition he should acquire rather more 
than a mere superficial knowledge of Biology and Zoology, Anat- 
omy, Physiology, and Pathology; in other words, the educated, 
thoroughly qualified pharmacist must be a learned professional 
man. 

CLASSIFICATIONS 

In the prosecution of any study it is absolutely necessary to 
adopt some system. A haphazard random memorizing of isolated 
facts is of little value because the facts are not utilizable unless 
their relation to each other is fully understood. 

Therefore, in order to study drugs and medicines we must adopt 
some method of classification. We may adopt any of the following 
methods, or in fact, adopt several for different purposes— 



HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 17 

Alphabetical. 

Natural orders alphabetically arranged. 



[ Natural orders according to natural system. 
Zoological. 
Chemical. 
Physiological. 
Therapeutical. 

Physiological and Therapeutical Combined. 
Organoleptic Properties. 
Physical Characteristics. 

The Alphabetical Classification is best adapted for works of 
reference and is used in the Pharmacopoeia and in the various 
commentaries, as in the Dispensatories. The system has no scien- 
tific merit, but is the best and only one adapted for convenience 
and rapidity of reference. 

Botanical Classifications are of interest because they group 
drugs according to their family affinities, all the drugs derived 
from any one class of plants being enumerated together. While 
this system has a little value in an abstract scientific sense, it is 
of little or no practical value to the pharmacist or physician, as 
botanical affinities do not argue therapeutical affinities or phar- 
maceutical similarities. For instance: the Rubiaeece furnish both 
cinchona and ipecac; the Leguminosce yield a heterogeneous jum- 
ble of drugs dissimilar in physical nature as well as in medicinal 
activities, as gum arabic, senna, catechu, balsam of tolu, logwood, 
Calabar bean, cassia fistula, red saunders, licorice root, broom, ta- 
marind and balsam of peru, representing the therapeutical groups 
of lenitives, laxatives, astringents, cathartics, blennorrhetics, nar- 
cotics, and coloring agents, and the physical groups of gums, ex- 
tracts, balsams, fruits, roots, wood, leaves and flowering tops ; from 
the Umbelliferce we derive anise, asafcetida, and conium, etc. 

This whole subject is of such subordinate value to the pharmacist, 
that students are advised not to devote much time to trying to mem- 
orize the classes of plants from which the various drugs are derived, 
if this must be done at the expense of practical and more impor- 
tant subjects of study. 

Some works classify the natural orders of plants according to 
a "natural system," while in other works on drugs based on bo- 
tanical classification the orders of plants are arranged alpha- 
betically. 

As drugs are not in condition to be classified botanically, or to 



18 HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 

be assigned to their botanical classes, this method of grouping 
them is of absolutely no value to the pharmacist or pharma- 
cognosist. 

If the animal drugs were of more importance, we might be jus- 
tified in adding a Zoological Classification; to the extent that 
these drugs are spoken of such a classification is in use, but it is 
of course of very inferior importance and of limited applicability. 

Chemical Classifications, more or less comprehensive, are used 
for special purposes, as for instance in pharmacy when the drugs 
are arranged in groups according to their constituents, with ref- 
erence to the menstrua that are needed to exhaust them in mak- 
ing tinctures, fluid extracts, etc. 

Physiological Classifications are based on the actions of medi- 
cines as determined by experiments on lower animals or on 
healthy human beings. While the action as thus determined is 
not always the same as, or even similar to the action of the same 
drug when administered to a sick person, the facts found by 
physiological researches and experiments explain the manner of 
the action of medicines and suggest the rational and more scien- 
tific use of the remedies. 

Therapeutical Classifications are based on the actions of medi- 
cines in disease. The knowledge of the action of remedies has 
been obtained in the past, largely by accident or empiricism, and 
many absurdities were believed until modern systematic physi- 
ological research placed the study of therapeutics on a more 
rational basis. Still, even now, the mode of action of many reme- 
dies and the valuable results obtained by the administration of 
these medicines to the sick, are but imperfectly or not at all un- 
derstood, and the administration of these drugs and. their prepa- 
rations continues to be based on the accumulated empirical ex- 
periences of the past and present. 

But while a therapeutical classification is not as strictly scien- 
tific as some of the others, it is of great value to the physician, 
and is very valuable for the purpose of the therapeutist, and some 
therapeutical system of classification of medicines should be 
studied by every pharmacist as well. There are very many dif- 
ferent systems of this kind, almost every author on therapeutics 
having modified previous systems to suit his own theories. 

Perhaps the most valuable system of classification for the physi- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 19 

cian is one based on the combined physiological and therapeutical 

consideration of medicines. In other words, a careful study of 
the empirical knowledge and experience of the ages by the light 
of modern scientific methods, gives us the best and most practical 
systems of classification of medicines for clinical use. 

A system of this kind, practically based on Headland's work 
on the action of drugs, is presented for study a little farther on. 

The grouping of drugs according to their organoleptic proper- 
ties (odor, taste, or even color) was properly and scathingly ridi- 
culed by Schleiden, the originator of modern pharmacognosy, 
yet it has been made quite prominent again in recent times; — 
modern systematic pharmacognosy is intended to enable us to 
identify or recognize unknown drugs from a description of the 
same; therefore, the descriptions of drugs should be in words 
that convey some idea about their properties, which cannot be 
done in regard to their organoleptic properties. For instance, 
we cannot describe, in words, what "sweet" or "sour" means, to 
one who has not experienced such tastes before; we cannot de- 
scribe, in words, the difference between the "sweetness" of cane 
sugar and maple sugar, between the "sourness" of vinegar 
and lemon juice, or the difference in the "aromas" of vanilla 
and cardamom, or anise and fennel; therefore, while an experi- 
ence of such tastes or odors may be a very great aid in recognizing 
again previously known drugs, no good verbal description in re- 
gard to previously unknown tastes or odors can be given, and 
therefore such characteristics should not be made important in 
modern works of pharmacognosy, even though it is advisable for 
every student of pharmacognosy to taste and smell every drug. 
Least of all should organoleptic properties be made the basis of 
a classification of drugs, as has been done by some recent authors. 

We have learned that Pharmacognosy is the knowledge of 
drugs and that it teaches us how to recognize and identify drugs 
and how to determine their quality. The systems of classifica- 
tions already mentioned are of little or no assistance for this pur- 
pose and another method must be adopted. 

Physical Characteristics are made the basis of a system of 
classification whose introduction raised Pharmacognosy to be a 
methodical and accurate science. When we see a drug that is 
not known to us, we examine it carefully to find what it is; 



20 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

suppose it is a root this determination at once eliminates from the 
consideration of what it possibly can be all the drugs that are 
not roots and narrows us to a choice among a comparatively 
small number of drugs. This is what the physician would call 
"diagnosis by exclusion." 

We make a transverse section of the drug and examine the 
smooth cut surface with a lens, or we may make a microscopical 
section and examine that, to determine whether it is a mono-coty- 
ledonous or di-cotyledonous root. As we can observe nearly all 
the facts required for identification by examining a smooth sec- 
tion with a low-power lens, and by reflected light, it is not neces- 
sary to make or figure cleared sections showing cellular details. 
Many drawings in this book show merely what a small lens, or 
even the unaided eye, can see by reflected light. If we find our 
specimen to be of di-cotyledonous structure, we determine next 
whether it is a fleshy or woody root, and if the latter, whether 
it has a thick or thin bark; if it is either a woody root with a 
thick bark, or a fleshy root, we look for oil, resin or latex ducts, 
because we subdivide into groups with or without such ducts. 
Now we have probably reduced the number of drugs which the 
one under examination can be to a half dozen or less, and we 
can soon determine which one of this small number it really is. 
Or if we find the drug to be a leaf or flower, a bark or wood, or 
anything else, we proceed in a similar manner to narrow the 
choice to a very few names, from which it is easy to select the 
correct one. 

This is what is meant by a system of Pharmacognosy based on 
physical characteristics. 

As the main object of systematic pharmacognosy is to enable 
us to recognize and identify unknown drugs, it follows that the 
characteristics taken notice of in such a system must be such as 
can be recognized in any unknown drug; therefore the physical 
characteristics which can be recognized by our physical senses 
(mainly sight and touch) are most important. For instance, to 
classify volatile oils as derived from leaves, flowers, fruits, etc., is 
absurd, because we cannot recognize this in an unknown volatile 
oil; we must first identify the oil and then ascertain such facts 
from a book. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 21 

Therapeutical Classification 

Innumerable systems of therapeutical classification have been 
proposed; it is impossible to devise a system of any kind of 
classification which shall be open to no objection; we see a weak 
place in one system and Ave attempt to better it only to find 
that it necessitates changes elsewhere that are more objectionable 
than the faults we attempted to correct. The best system, there- 
fore, remains a compromise, and it differs from other systems 
mainly because one author places more stress on one feature of 
the subject, another author more on some other feature. 

The following therapeutical system of classifications is given 
merely for the purpose of giving a general idea of the subject, and 
not because it is better than dozens of others, any one of which 
might have been used as well as an illustration: — 

CLASS I. HAEMATICS OR BLOOD REMEDIES. 

DIVISION I. RESTORATIVES. 

Order 1. Aliments or Foods. 
" 2. Acids. 
" 3. Alkalies. 
" 4. Tonics. 
11 5. Chalybeate* (Iron). 
" 6. Solvents. 

DIVISION II. CATALYTICS, OR ALTERATIVES. • 

Order 1. Antiplilogisties. 

2. Antisyphilitics. 

3. Antiscrofulosa. 

4. Antiarthrities. 

5. Antiscorbutics. 

6. Antiperiodies. 

7. Anticonvulsives. 

8. Antisquamosa. 

CLASS II. NEUROTICS OR NERVE REMEDIES. 
DIVISION I. STIMULANTS. 

Order 1. General Stimulants. 
" 2. Specific Stimulants. 

DIVISION II. NARCOTICS. 

Order 1. Inebriants. 

' ' 2. Somnif erants. 
. " 3. Deliriants. 

DIVISION III. ASTRINGENTS. 

Order 1. Mineral Astringents. 
" 2. Vegetable Astringents. 



22 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

CLASS III. ELIMINANTS OR EVACUANTS. 

Order 1. Sialagogues. 

." 2. Expectorants. 

" 3. Emetics. 

" 4. Cathartics. 

*' 5. Cholagogues. 

" 6. Diaphoretics. 

" 7. Diuretics. 

CLASS IV. TOPICAL OR LOCAL REMEDIES. 

It is outside of the purpose of this book to go into any farther 
detail in regard to this subject. The meaning of the words, as far 
as they are not self-explanatory, can be learned from any med- 
ical dictionary, or the student may study these and other thera- 
peutical terms in the list of therapeutical terms on page 612 of 
this book. 

Classification According to Physical Characteristics 

This method of classification deals only with drugs, which are 
the organic substances used in medicine and: the arts in the 
crude form in which they are brought into trade. They are 
grouped according to their derivation from animals or plants, 
and secondarily according to whether or not they show organic 
or cell structure. 



Drugs 



Animal 



{Showing cell-structure. 
Showing no cell-structure. 



] Vegetable! Showing cell-structure. 
[ ( Showing no cell-struct 



structure. 



Animal Drugs 



Showing cell-structure 



f Worms. 



Whole animals I 1 Insects. 

[ Immature ; Eggs. 
[Soluble in alcohol or water. 
Parts of animals Ingoluble in a i coho i or wate r. 



f Solid. 
Showing no cell-structure I Semi-solid. 
[ Liquid. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



23 



Showing cell-structure 



Vegetable Drugs 

Whole plants or flowering tops, sufficiently com- 
plete for botanical determination. 

Cryptogams.* 
Roots. 
Rhizomes. 
Tubers or Corms. 
Bulbs. 

Twigs or Branches. 
Piths. 
Woods. 
Barks. 
Leafbuds. 
Leaves. 
Flowers. 
Fruits. 
Seeds. 

Parts of plants not easily recog- 
nizable. 



Parts of Plants. 



Showing no cell-structure 



Showing definite granules under microscope. 

Acids. 

Juices and Extracts. 
Sugars. 
Gums. 
Gum-resins. 
Resins. 
Oleo-resins. 
Balsams. 
Volatile oils. 
Fixed oils. 

Peculiar concrete substances. 
.Coloring matters. 



Amorphous, t 



The cellular vegetable drugs are grouped as follows : — 



Whole Plants or Flowering Tops. 



Cryptogams 



Thallogens 



Acrogens 



{Algae. 
Lichens. 
Fungi. 

ILycopodiaceas. 
Equisetaceae. 
Ferns. 



Roots 



Mono-cotyledonous. 

Woody with thin bark. 

{with ducts. t 
without ducts.* 



Di-cotyledonous 



Fleshy! 



with ducts. }: 
without ducts.t 



*The Cryptogams, many of which are really whole plants, are placed here on account 
of the difficulty of classifying them botanically. 

tA few of these amorphous substances contain mechanically incorporated debris of cellu- 
lar elements. 

{Oil, resin or latex ducts or special large cells. 



24 



Rhizomes 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 
Mono-cotyledonous. 



With rootlets 



Without rootlets < 



( with ducts.* 
Di-cotyledonous 1 .,-. , -, , * 
J [without ducts.* 

Cryptogamous. 

f elongated. 
Mono-cotyledonous | ghort> compact ; 

f elongated. 



Di-cotyledonous 



[ short, compact. 



Tubers or Corms 



| Whole. 
1 Sliced. 



Bulbs 



Whole. 
Sliced. 



f Leafy. 
Twigs or Branches < Scaly. 

I Naked. 
Piths. 



Woods 



Barks 



White. 
Colored. 



Whole 



.Rasped. 
Leaf buds. 



Bast with isolated bast-cells. 
Bast radially striated. 
Bast tangentially striated. 
Bast quadratically striated. 
Bast without striation. 



Leaves 



Flowers 



Fruits 



Simple. 
Coriaceous { CompoimcL 

Herbaceous \ n -, 

[Compound. 

{Racemose or cymose. 
[Unopened. 
Compound flower-heads j y ■, _, 

{[ Unopened. 
Whole \^ A A 

[Expanded, 
f Corollas. 
Parts of flowers \ Cl , . 
[ Stigmas. 

{Spurious. 
Fleshy. 
Stone Fruits. 

(Spurious. 
Fie h 
Stone fruits. 



Parts of Fruits. 
Whole. 
Seeds <J Cotyledons only. 

Ariili, or seed-coats. 

! Whole. 
Cut, or otherwise altered. 
Trichomes. 
Excrescences. 



*Oil, resin or latex ducts or special large cells. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 25 

We find that this gives us the following groups, numbered con- 
secutively : — 

1. Worms. 

2. Insects. 

3. Eggs. (Immature forms of animals.) 

4. Parts of animals wholly or partly soluble in alcohol or water. 

5. Parts of animals not soluble in alcohol or water. 

6. Solid non-cellular animal substances. 

7. Semi-solid amorphous animal substances. 

8. Liquid amorphous animal substances. 

9. Plants or flowering tops, sufficiently complete for botanical deter- 
mination. 

10. Algae. 

11. Lichens. 

12. Fungi. 

13. Lycopodiaceae. 

14. Equisetacese. 

15. Perns. 

16. Mono-cotyledonous roots. 

17. Woody dicotyledonous roots with thin bark. 

18. Woody di-cotyledonous roots with thick bark and with oil, resin or 
latex ducts. 

19. Woody dicotyledonous roots with thick bark, but without oil, resin 
or latex ducts. 

20. Fleshy roots with oil, resin or latex ducts. 

21. Fleshy roots without oil, resin or latex ducts. 

22. Mono-cotyledonous rhizomes with rootlets. 

23. Di-cotyledonous rhizomes with rootlets and with oil, resin or latex 
ducts. 

24. Di-cotyledonous rhizomes with rootlets but without oil, resin or latex 
ducts. 

25. Cryptogamous rhizomes without rootlets. 

26. Mono-cotyledonous rhizomes without rootlets, long as compared with 
the diameter. 

27. Mono-cotyledonous rhizomes without rootlets, short and compact. 

28. Di-cotyledonous rhizomes without rootlets, long as compared with the 
diameter. 

29. Di-cotyledonous rhizomes without rootlets, short and compact. 

30. Whole tubers or corms. 

31. Sliced tubers or corms. 

32. Whole bulbs. 

33. Sliced bulbs. 

34. Twigs with leaves attached. 

35. Scaly twigs. 

36. Naked twigs. 

37. Piths. 



26 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

38. White woods. 

39. Colored woods. 

40. Barks which show isolated bast-cells on transverse section. 

41. Barks with the bast radially striated. 

42. Barks with the bast tangentially striated. 

43. Barks with the bast quadratically striated. 

44. Barks with no striation of bast. 

45. Rasped bark, so that sections cannot be made. 

46. Leaf buds. 

47. Simple coriaceous leaves. 

48. Compound coriaceous leaves. 

49. Simple herbaceous leaves. 

50. Compound herbaceous leaves. 

51. Racemose or cymose inflorescences. 

52. Unopened compound flower-heads. 

53. Expanded compound flower-heads. 

54. Unopened singje flowers. 

55. Opened single flowers. 

56. Corollas. 

57. Stigmas. 

58. Spurious fruits, fresh. 

59. Fleshy fruits, fresh. 

60. Stone-fruits, fresh. 

61. Dried or prepared spurious fruits. 

62. Dry fruits. 

63. Dried or prepared fleshy fruits. 

64. Dried or prepared stone-fruits. 

65. Parts of fruits. 

66. Whole seeds. 

67. Cotyledons only. 

68. Seed-coats or Arilli. 

69. Whole vegetable substances, in which the plant-part is not always 
easily determined. 

70. Cut or otherwise altered plant substances in which the plant-part is 
not always easily determined. 

71. Trichomes, or epidermal outgrowths. 

72. Excrescences or morbid outgrowths. 

73. Granular substances which show no cell-structure, but show regular 
and definite structure under the microscope. 

74. Acids. 

75 and 76. Juices and Extracts. 

77. Sugars. 

78. Gums. 

79. Gum-resins. 

80. Resins. 

81. Oleo-resins. 

82. Balsams. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 27 

83. Volatile oils. 

84. Fixed oils. 

85. Peculiar concrete substances. 

86. Coloring matters. 

METHOD OF STUDY 

In studying the individual drugs Ave do not limit ourselves to 
a consideration of pharmacognosy alone but study several other 
things about them. By adopting a method we will be less apt to 
overlook or forget facts of importance, and a plan similar to the 
following is usually adopted: — 

Name. 
Origin. 
Habitat. 
Description. 

Shape. 

Size. 

Color. 

Fracture. 

Structure; 
Coarse ; 
Microscopical. 

Odor. 

Taste. 
Constituents. 
Uses; 

Action; 

Dose. 

Name (N.). — First the pharmacopoeia! or pharmaceutical title, 
then the scientific English name; next common English names, 
or synonyms. 

Origin (0.). — Nature and source of the drug; part of animal 
or plant used, followed by name and natural order of plant or 
animal. 

Habitat (H.). — The country or home where the animal or plant 
is found. A knowledge of the habitat is of commercial impor- 
tance, because it enables the buyer to judge of the best time to 
buy; when new crops may be expected; the prospects of growing 
crops; influences like drought, war, tariff legislation, epidemics, 
etc., that may interfere with the gathering of crops or that may 
affect the prices, etc. Also, to some extent at least, there is more 



28 Hx^NDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

variation in the appearance of drugs that are gathered in civilized 
lands than in those from less civilized countries where the natives 
adhere more blindly to custom; for instance, calumba from Mo- 
zambique is invariably in transverse slices, while veratrum viride 
from North Carolina may be whole, in transverse slices, longitu- 
dinal halves or longitudinal quarters, with rootlets or without 
rootlets. 

Description (D.). — This is pharmacognosy proper, and when we 
examine an unknown drug in order to determine its identity, this 
is all we can study about the drug until we have fixed its identity. 
A knowledge of the physical characters of a drug enables us 
also to judge of its quality. We consider these characteristics in 
the following order: — 

Shape, size and color are self-explanatory words ; we must note 
both external and internal color. 

Fracture refers to the characteristics that are observed on 
breaking a piece of the drug. The following kinds of fracture are 
the more important ones : — 

Waxy. — A peculiar granular appearance of the broken surface, 
as seen on breaking a piece of yellow bees-wax. 

Resinous. — Smooth, glossy surfaces, as seen on breaking a piece 
of rosin. 

Conchoidal. — Usually smooth and shining like the resinous frac- 
ture, but the surfaces are peculiarly curved, one surface being 
concave like the inside of a clam-shell, while the other is correspond- 
ingly convex. Observed in aloes, extract of licorice, etc. Con- 
choidal depressions are also observed in the external bark of some 
drugs. 

Brittle. — The substance readily breaks into fragments, as in kino 
or catechu. 

The foregoing fractures are observed in the amorphous drugs, or 
drugs without cell-structure, while the following occur in vegetable 
drugs with cell-structure. 

Abrupt or Smooth. — Breaking with a smooth surface, abruptly 
across the drug, as in curcuma, dandelion, podophyllum, etc. This 
fracture is due to a preponderance of parenchyma tissue, with little 
or no prosenchyma, or with only soft-walled prosenchyma. 

Mealy. — Like the last, with the additional feature that the sur- 
face appears to be covered with a fine powder, (starch) ; seen in 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 29 

mealy sarsaparillas, Florentine orris, calumba, aletris, ginseng, etc. 

Tough.— Breaking with difficulty, or even not breaking at all, 
except after much twisting and tearing, although readily bending ; 
as in mezereon, cotton root bark, simaruba, etc. 

Spongy or corky. — A characteristic of vegetable drugs which have 
large intercellular spaces in the fresh state, as in calamus, blue flag, 
etc. There is a peculiar feeling as if the side towards which the 
piece is being bent is compressed while the other side stretches 
before the break occurs, which latter, however, is usually abrupt, the 
feeling of elasticity referred to being the feature that gives the 
name to this kind of fracture. 

Splintery. — The piece of drug breaks into two large pieces on 
being broken, but a number of small pieces or "splinters" are 
usually also produced, which fall away. The fracture therefore ap- 
proaches the brittle fracture of amorphous substances. Apt to occur 
in cinchona and other barks. 

Fibrous. — The broken ends have a jagged or rough appearance 
from projecting fibers, fibrovascular bundles or wood-cells in whole 
rhizomes or roots, etc. ; bundles of bast-cells in cinchona, etc. The 
fibrous fracture is a characteristic of a preponderance of hard-walled 
prosenchyma tissue. 

Hazel-switch. — The drug breaks partly through, then splits up 
and down along the length of the piece, while the remaining un- 
broken part bends. Seen in gillenia, etc. 

These fractures throw much light on the — 

Structure, which, however, is to be ascertained more fully by 
making sections and examining with a lens or microscope. Usually 
one examination of the transverse section suffices, but if the student 
wishes to become qualified to examine powdered drugs, he must fa- 
miliarize himself with all the cellular elements in the drug. A 
sample of powdered drug, known to be pure, should also be exam- 
ined, and, if possible, permanently mounted for future reference, 
although the study of powdered drugs is not, strictly speaking, 
part of pharmacognosy. 

Odor and Taste are organoleptic properties which cannot be de- 
scribed in words, except by reference to similar odors or tastes pre- 
sumably familiar to the reader. We say a drug has a sweet, bit- 
ter, aromatic, acrid, mucilaginous or other taste, or that it has a 
camphoraceous, terebinthinate or other odor, and the words con- 



30 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

vey an idea because we have experienced snch tastes and smells ; 
but there are many tastes and odors which we cannot describe 
in words and to which we can only refer as "peculiar," as in 
anise, fennel, peppermint, etc. Such tastes and odors, when once 
experienced, are usually characteristic and not readily forgot- 
ten and often serve as good means of identification of the drug. 

Constituents (C). — Under this heading we list the chemical 
constituents of the drug; the dispensatories may be consulted for 
details, but in this book only the most important or active con- 
stituents will be mentioned. 

An extended study of the active principles of drugs, or descrip- 
tions of methods of assay belong to Avorks on pharmacy or of 
chemistry, but not to works on pharmacognosy. We can, there- 
fore, treat this part of the description of drugs in a quite super- 
ficial manner. 

It may be of help, however, to say a few words about the "ac- 
tive principles ' ' found in drugs. 

Some of the most important active principles are — 

Alkaloids. — Carbon compounds containing nitrogen and ca- 
pable of combining with acids to form salts — such as atropine, 
quinine, cocaine, strychnine, etc. They are usually combined in 
the drug with some organic acid peculiar to the drug, as meconic 
acid in opium, quinic acid in cinchona; many are combined with 
tannic acid, which is found in many plants. 

Neutral Principles have neutral reactions; they are usually 
divided into bitter principles, or extractives, and glucosides. 

Glucosides, when treated with dilute acids, alkalies, or ferments, 
break up into glucose (sugar) and some other and often quite 
active substances. For instance, amygdalin, a glucoside contained 
in the bitter almond, in the presence of the ferment emulsin and 
water breaks up into glucose, volatile oil of bitter almond, and 
hydrocyanic acid. 

Vegetable Fats and fixed oils are glycerides, mainly olein, 
stearin and palmitin, or combinations of glycerin with oleic, 
stearic and palmitic acids. On addition of alkalies they are sa- 
ponified or form soaps. 

Volatile Oils consist of hydrocarbons of the aromatic series, 
usually associated with oxygen derivatives, alcohols, aldehydes, 
compound ethers, acids, ketones and phenols. Some of them exist 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 31 

in the drugs and are stored in special containers, as in glands, in 
the leaf of eucalyptus, the rind of orange, etc., in the oil-tubes 
of the cremocarps, as oil of anise, coriander, etc., but some do not 
preexist in the drugs but are formed by various reactions, as by 
action of water on the amygdalin and emulsin of the bitter al- 
mond, or by the decomposition of sinigrin (potassium myronate) 
by myrosin and water in black mustard. Exposed to light and 
air, they become oxidized and are changed to resins. 

Resins are largely composed of organic acid esters, or com- 
pound ethers of certain alcohols ; some resins have acid properties, 
others are anhydrides; they exist in the drugs, alone, (as Resins) 
or in combination with volatile oils (Oleo-Resins), or with gums 
(Gum-Resins) or with balsamic acids, such as benzoic or cinnamic 
acids (Balsams). 

Tannins are a class of substances of the nature of glucosides ; 
they produce bluish or greenish black solutions with ferric salts. 
A drug containing much tannin or tannic acid is astringent or 
styptic. In the drugs, tannic acid is often in combination with 
the alkaloid or alkaloids of that drug. 

Then drugs may contain gums, mucilage, starch, or other com- 
paratively inactive or unimportant principles. In this book we 
will only mention the important active principles of the drugs, 
leaving all mention of assaying to the works on pharmacy. 

Uses (U.). — The pharmacist must have some knowledge of the 
action of remedies and of the doses, because this enables him to pre- 
vent accidents in cases of errors in the prescription through igno- 
rance or carelessness of the prescriber. 

Special remarks will be made when there are subjects like adul- 
terations, substitutions, poisonous effects, antidotes, etc., to be con- 
sidered. 

In lectures, history of some drugs may be referred to also, but 
in this book all reference to this subject will be omitted. 

We will study each drug according to the following scheme. 

TITLE 
N.— O.— H.— D.— C— U. 

SPECIAL EEMAEKS 



32 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



ANIMAL DRUGS 

An animal drug- may generally be distinguished from a vegetable 
drug by the peculiar empyreumatic odor obtained by heating: or 
burning a portion of it, resembling burning horn or hoofs. 

Cellular Animal Drugs 

GROUP I 

Worms 

Hirudo 

N. Leech. — 0. The live aquatic worm Sanguisuga medicinalis 
and 8. officinalis; class Vermes; order Annalidae. — H. Found all 
over the world, but the European leech is the only one kept in drug 
stores. It is now extensively reared in this country. — D. Two varie- 
ties are generally mentioned, the "gray leech" (8. med.) and the 
"green leech" (8. offic), but there is no practical reason for making 
a distinction. Leeches vary in length from 5 to 10 centimeters; 
spindle-shaped, flattened above and below; with about 100 rings 
which are merely superficial; head-end with 3-rayed serrate- 
toothed jaws, tail end with a circular sucker ; color of back black- 
ish to grayish-green, with 6 longitudinal ferruginous lines, the 
four outer of which are spotted black. The body of the green 
leech is yellowish-green with lateral longitudinal black lines, 
while in the gray the belly is grayish-black, also lined with more 
or less interrupted black lines. — U. Used for local blood-letting; 
a European leech draws from 15 to 25 c.c. of blood, which quan- 
tity may be increased by bathing the bite in warm water after the 
leeches have dropped off. 

GROUP II 

Insects 

Without wings; angular granules Coccus 

With wings greenish or coppery metallic luster Cantharis 

Wings black with transverse yellow bands Mylabris 



HANDBOtfK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



m 



Wings black with longitudinal yellow bands 
Entire insect brownish black 



. Canth. Vittata 
Blatta 




Fig. 1. 



Fig. 



Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 



Coccus 



N. Cochineal. — 0. The dried female of Coccus Cacti enclosing 
the young larvae; Coccidae; class Insecta; order Hemiptera. — H. 
Mexico mainly, but also in Central America and West Indies. — 
D. Angular grains, about 5 mm. long; oval, flat below, convex 
above, transversely wrinkled; easily pulverizable ; grayish-white 
("silver grain") to purplish-black' ("black grain"); almost odor- 
less ; faint or bitterish taste. In Fig. 1 the larger round one shows a 
grain after having been swelled in water. — C. Carminic acid, 
soluble in water, alcohol, water of ammonia, etc. — U. Coloring 
agent ; sometimes used as an anti-spasmodic in whooping cough, 
etc. Dose: 0.03 to 0.2 gram. 



Cantharis 

N. Cantharides, Spanish Flies, Blistering Flies. — 0. The whole 
insect Cantharis vesicatoria; class Insecta; order Coleoptera. — H. 
Southern Europe. — D. Quite uniform in size, about 25 mm. long 
and 6 mm. wide (See Fig. 2); cylindrical, slightly flattened above 
and below ; when wing cases are closed all external parts are of 
greenish metallic luster, the Russian variety having a coppery tint ; 
large membranous, brownish wings under the long, slender, shining 
wing cases ; the powder is brownish with fine shining particles, 
the fragments of the external structures; odor disagreeable; taste 
acrid. — C. Not less than 0.6% of cantharidin, soluble in alcohol, 
ether, chloroform, fats, fatty oils, etc.— U. Externally as a vesi- 
cant; internally, stimulant and diuretic. Dose: Tincture, 0.2 to 
0.5 c.c, largely diluted. 



34 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Cantharis Vittata 

N. Potato bug. — 0. The entire insect Cantharis Vittata; class In- 
secta; order Coleoptera. — H. United States. — D. Shape and size 
similar to those of Spanish flies; the insect is black with two 
longitudinal yellow stripes on each wing case, one along the mid- 
dle and one along the inner margin. Is not found in the trade 
but is a powerful vesicating agent. — C. and U. like those of Can- 
tharis. 

Mylabris 

N. Chinese Blistering Flies. — 0. The entire insect Mylabris Ci- 
chorii; class Insect a; order Coleoptera. — H. Indigenous in Eastern 
and Southern Asia, but brought into trade from China. — D. (See 
Fig. 3). Long, cylindrical body, rounded over back, flat below; 
variable in size, from 15 to 30 mm. long; the black wing cases 
marked w 7 ith a spot at their insertion to the thorax, and two broad 
bands, spot and bands of a yellowish-brown color. Odor, taste, 
C. and U. as of cantharis. 

In several lots of Chinese blistering flies I have found a large 
proportion of a short thick beetle figured beside the Mylabris in- 
sect; this insect, which is a variety of scarabaeus, has a metallic 
luster and if powdered with the Mylabris would give the powder 
of the latter the appearance of the powder of true Cantharides. 
It is an. adulteration. 

Blatta 

N. Cockroach. — 0. The whole insect Blatta orient alis; class In- 
secta; order Orthoptera. — H. Everywhere in houses, about sinks, 
etc. — D. Too familiar to need much description. (See Fig. 4.) 
Flatfish, about 25 to 40 mm. long; rudimentary wing cases and 
wings, nearly reaching the tail end in the male but quite short in 
the female ; brownish-black ; nauseating odor and taste. — C. Ac- 
tive principle not isolated. — U. Internally as a diuretic. Dose: 
0.3 to 0.5 gram. 

A recently introduced article of commerce is Flies, dried, and 
sold as food for birds. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 35 

GROUP IV 

Ovum 

N. Egg, Chicken Egg. — 0. Egg of Gallus Bankira, var. domes- 
tica; class Aves; order Gallinae. — H. Domesticated everywhere. — 
D. Too familiar to need description. The yolk is used under the 
title "Vitellum." — C. The white of the egg consists of about 85% 
water, 12% albumen, 2.7% mucus and some saline substances; the 
yolk is more complex, about 50% water, vitellin about 16%, pal- 
mitin, stearin and olein, about 20%, etc. — U. Nutritive. In phar- 
macy the yolk is used in making emulsions ; the albumen for clari- 
fying liquids. 

The eggs of other domestic fowls, as of ducks or geese, have a 
more pronounced flavor than those of chickens, but they may be 
used instead, if necessary. 

GROUP IV. 

Parts of Animals Wholly or Partly Soluble in Alcohol or 

Water 

Rolls or flat pieces of tough fibrous structure Ichthyocolla 

Long, thin, membranous ribbons American Isinglass 

Round sacs, hairy on one side, smooth on the other Moschus 

Long grayish-brown sacs Castoreum 

Ichthyocolla 

N. Isinglass; Russian Isinglass; Fishglue. — 0. The dried swim- 
ming bladders or sounds of the sturgeon, Acipenser Huso, and 
other varieties of Acipenser; class Pisces; order Sturiones. — H. 
Rivers of Russia. — D. In flat sheets, more rarely in rolls; tough 
horny appearance, with a grayish pearly or sometimes, iridescent 
luster; whitish or yellowish; translucent; no odor; insipid taste. 
— C. Almost pure gelatin, nearly completely soluble in boiling 
water or boiling diluted alcohol. Dissolved in twenty-four times 
its weight of boiling water it forms a jelly on cooling.— U. Jelly 
of isinglass is used as a nutriment; in pharmacy it is also used for 
clarifying liquids and for making court-plaster. 

Book or Leaf Isinglass is Russian isinglass in single sheets, or 
each sheet folded once. 



36 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Staple Isinglass is Russian isinglass rolled into cylinders. 

Scrap Isinglass is the trimmings and small pieces of Russian 
isinglass. 

Cake Isinglass is made by dissolving the scraps of Russian isin- 
glass and drying the jelly in cakes. 

Shred Isinglass is made by cutting Russian isinglass into very 
fine shreds; used by gilders and glass sign painters. Should not 
be confounded with shred gelatin which looks similar, but the 
shreds of which are less tough and more transparent. 

American Isinglass 

American Isinglass is said by some to be the dried intestines of 
the cod and of other fishes ; others say it is the swimming bladders 
or sounds of hake, rolled between cylinders under great pressure 
until quite thin, when it is cut into bands. It is in long thin mem- 
braneous bands of a tough fibrous structure; nearly transparent; of 
pale yellowish color; fishy odor; insipid taste. Inferior to Rus- 
sian isinglass mainly on account of its disagreeable odor. 

Pipe or Purse Isinglass is an inferior isinglass made by drying 
the whole sounds of fishes, without splitting them open. 

Gelatin in various forms is also sold under the name of "isin- 
glass," but should not be confounded with isinglass. 

Mica in sheets, as used in stoves, lamp chimneys, etc., is com- 
monly but erroneously called "isinglass" by the public. 

Moschus 

N. Musk. — 0. The dried secretion from the preputial folli- 
cles of Moschus moschiferus; class Mammalia ; order Ruminantia. 
The gland containing musk is situated between the navel and pre- 
puce of the male, immediately under the skin, opening by a small 
hairy orifice a little in front of the prepuce. — H. Central Asia. — 
D. (See Fig. 5). Musk comes in sacs about 50 to 60 mm. long; 
the convex side is covered Avith an adherent portion of the skin 
with short, stiff, brownish-yellow or grayish hairs that point to a 
center at the orifice of the gland ; the flat side is membranous, flat 
and without hairs. Each sac contains from 5 to 8 grams of a pecu- 
liar unctuous substance, which constitutes the Moschus of the Phar- 






HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 37 

macopoeia. — C. Its composition is very complex, none of its con- 
stituents, however, being in the nature of an "active principle." 
Its solubility is variable, from 50 to 90 per cent being soluble in 
water and from 10 to 60 per cent in alcohol. — U. Stimulant and 
antispasmodic ; also in perfumery. Dose: 0.5 gram or more. 

There are two varieties; the Chinese smaller and round sacs 
being the better; the Russian is in pear-shaped sacs and has a more 
offensive odor. 

Even in the sacs musk is often adulterated by the introduction 
of shot or small pieces of lead or gravel ; or the sacs are opened and 
the musk replaced by a mixture of powdered meat, dried blood, musk, 
etc., the opening being closed again by sewing or gluing. Even en- 
tirely artificial sacs have been made from portions of skin and scro- 




Fig. 5. 

turn of the animal and filled with such spurious mixtures. Care will 
demonstrate the genuineness and integrity of the "musk pods," 
and musk should not be bought except in genuine and intact 
sacs, or from reliable dealers. 

See also Moschus, under Group VI. 

Castoreum 

N. Castoreum ; Castor. — O. The glands of the beaver, Castor fiber, 
with their contents ; class Mammalia; order Rodentia. — H. Northern 
parts of both hemispheres. — D. In both male and female beavers 
there are two sacs or glands on each side between the anus and 
external genitals; the two glands of each pair empty their con- 



38 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

tents through a common duct, but they are usually unequal in 
size. In commerce they are usually united in pairs, dark-brown, 
wrinkled, tough, and when broken have a fatty resinous appear- 
ance. Odor peculiar, nauseating and strong, and taste bitter 
and pungent. — C. Volatile oil and resin ; not soluble in water, but 
alcohol dissolves over 50 per cent. — U. Stimulant, antispasmodic 
and antihysteric. Dose: 0.5 gram or more. 

There are two varieties; the Eussian is in larger sacs and 
richer in resin and is esteemed more highly than the American 
which is less odorous, glossier and darker colored. 

They may be distinguished from each other by various proper- 




ties. Russian castoreum frequently is in single, round or pear- 
shaped glands, tapering towards the duct ; dark brown or almost 
black on the outside and light-brown within; on' fracture it 
shows a dull surface, never a resinous fracture. The two external 
membranes can be peeled off easily, one after the other, except 
in old and hard specimens. The sacs vary in weight from 50 to 
250 grams. 

American castoreum sacs occur more frequently in pairs. The 
sacs are smaller, elongated, deeply wrinkled ; 30 to 125 grams in 
weight; break with a resinous fracture; the color is lighter; the 
membranes adhere closely to the contents and cannot be peeled 
off. The illustration shows the shape of American castoreum. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 39 

GROUP V 

Parts of Animals Not Soluble in Alcohol or Water 

Anastomosing fibers Spongia 

Flattish, oval, white ' ' bones ' ' Os Sepiae 

Spongia 

N. Sponge. — 0. The fibrous skeleton of Spongia officinalis; Class 
Spongim; order Ceratosa; family Spongidce. — H. The marketed 
varieties are from the Mediterranean Sea and from the Bahama 
Islands and the northern coast of Cuba, but they grow all over 
the tropical and subtropical parts of the world. — D. A net work 
of elastic horny fibers, closely interwoven to form light, porous, 
flexible masses of various sizes and shapes; yellowish-brown to 
dark-brown color; peculiar faint odor and no taste. — C. Traces 
of iodine, bromine, phosphorus, .etc., have been detected in 
sponges. — U. Sponge is used mainly for mechanical purposes, for 
cleansing and washing ; or in the form of sponge tents for dilating 
sinuses, the neck of the womb, etc. "Sponge-grafting," consists 
in introducing carefully cleansed and sterilized sponge into a 
deep wound which must heal up by granulations, and has been 
practiced in cases in which the granulations appeared weak and 
flabby with a tendency to break down. The meshes of the sponge 
afford support to the forming granulations, the substance of the 
sponge being later on absorbed in the same manner in which car- 
bolized catgut ligatures are absorbed. "Burnt sponge," or char- 
coal made from sponge, was formerly used for the same purposes 
for which iodine and its preparations are now used; I have had 
calls for this article under the name "goitre sponge." 

There are several varieties of sponges. The best are the Tur- 
key or Levant sponges (from Euspongia officinalis) which are soft, 
velvety, and usually cup-shaped. 

Bahama sponges or "horse sponges" (from Hippospongia 
equina), are coarser, although the best varieties, "lamb's wool" 
and ' l velvet, ' ' are but little inferior to the Turkey sponges. 

Sand, gravel and calcareous concretions, corals, shells, etc., 
must be removed from sponges by beating, washing, or macerat- 
ing in very dilute hydrochloric acid (1:30). Bleached sponges 



40 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

are usually injured by the bleaching agents employed, such as 
chlorinated soda, chlorinated lime, chlorine water or sulphurous 
acid. 

Os Sepiae 

N. Cuttle-fish bone.- — 0. A calcareous body situated under the 
skin and constituting the internal skeleton of Sepia officinalis; 
Mollusca; class Cephalopoda; order Dibranchiatae. — H. Found 
washed up on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. — D. (See Fig. 
7. Illustration is much reduced in size.) Oblong ovate pieces, 10 
to 20 cm. long ; 2.5 to 7.5 cm. broad. Convex on both sides, hard 
and almost porcelain-like on one side, soft and friable on the other ; 
light and porous. White. Odor resembling sea weeds ; no taste. 
On section the friable portion is seen to be made up of numerous 




Fig. 7. 

layers of plates curved in the opposite direction to the hard plate 
and united to each other by minute spicules or pillars. — C. Mainly 
carbonate of lime. — U. Formerly as an antacid; now mainly as 
an ingredient of dentifrices, and to put in bird cages for birds to 
whet their bills upon. 

Various parts of other animals are sometimes mentioned as 
drugs. 

Bone or Os. The solid bones of various domestic animals. 

Burnt Bone, or Os Usta. Bone burnt in an open fire ; in porous, 
fragile, Avhite pieces retaining the shapes of the bones. Consists 
mainly of phosphate and carbonate of lime. Used to make phos- 
phorus, phosphoric acid, and solution of phosphates. 

Bone Black or Carbo Animalis. Animal charcoal is made by 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 41 

heating bones in closed retorts. Usually found in the trade as 
powdered animal charcoal. (See Group VI.) 

Oyster shells, egg shells, crabs' shells and crabs' claws, red 
and white coral, rasped harts' horn, etc., were also formerly 
used as medicines but are now practically obsolete. 

GROUP VI 

Solid Non-Cellular Animal Substances 

Eound, white, calcareous stones Lapilli Cancrorum 

Yellow waxy cakes or lumps Cera flava 

Thin, round or square cakes, waxy, white Cera alba 

Vv 7 hite, semi-transparent, unctuous masses of a crystalline. 

f oliaceous texture Cetaceum 

Hard, white, somewhat glossy masses Acidum Stearicam 

White, solid, fatty masses Sevum 

Black, gritty powder Carbo Animalis 

Brown, unctuous, very odorous powder Moschus 

Cylindrical crystalline masses Saccharuiri Lactis 

Irregular, flat, hard, brown, transparent pieces Colla 

Irregular, flat, semi-opaque, yellowish-white pieces Colla alba 

Colorless, transparent, rectangular, flexible sheets Gelatina 

Opaque, rectangular sheets of frothy texture Gelatin 

Clear, colorless, flexible shreds Shred Gelatin 

Grayish, brownish or blackish odorous masses Ambergris 

Small, hard, tenacious, odorous masses Hyraceum 

Lapilli Cancrorum 

N. Calculi Cancrorum, Oculi Cancrorum, Crabstones, Crabs' 
Eyes. — 0. Calcareous concretions found in the stomach, one on 
each side, of the European crawfish, Astacus fluviatilis; class Crus- 




tacea; order Decapoda. The crawfish are bruised and left in 
heaps to putrify, after which the remains are washed and the stones 
picked out. — H. Europe, especially European Russia. — D. (See 
Fig. 8.) Hemispherical hard stones, often with a depression on 



42 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

one side, varying from 3 or 4 to 15 or more millimeters in di- 
ameter, or 0.1 to 0.75 gram in Aveight, grayish-white or reddish- 
white color, hard or stony consistence and without odor or taste. — 
C. They consist of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate ce- 
mented together with organic matter, in a laminated structure; 
they effervesce with acids, the calcium salts being dissolved, 
leaving the animal substance in the shape of the original stones, 
but soft and flexible. 

Spurious crabstones, made from chalk or whiting and glue, 
and shaped to resemble the genuine, will not retain their shape 
when treated with acids. — U. Antacid. The putting a crabstone 
under the eyelid to remove a foreign body from the eye is a relic 
of barbarism and should be discountenanced. 

Cera Flava 

N. Beeswax, Yellow Beeswax, Yellow Wax. — 0. Prepared by the 
bee, Apis mellifera; class Insecta; order Hymenoptera. The honey- 
comb, after the honey is obtained, is melted in boiling water, in 
which the impurities either settle or are dissolved ; the wax, which 
floats on top of the water, cools into a solid cake which is then re- 
melted in fresh boiling water, strained, poured into suitable round 
vessels and allowed to cool. The cakes of wax thus formed are the 
beeswax of commerce. — H. Everywhere in temperate and tropical 
lands. — D. In round flat cakes weighing from one to five or more 
kilos or in irregular lumps ; specific gravity from 0.951 to 0.960 
at 25° C; yellowish or yellowish-brown, brittle when cold, break- 
ing with a peculiar granular or "waxy" fracture; becomes plas- 
tic on slightly warming it; it has a sweet honeylike, odor and a 
faint balsamic taste; it is soluble in ether, chloroform, fixed and 
volatile oils; nearly completely soluble in boiling alcohol; spar- 
ingly soluble in cold alcohol and insoluble in water. — U. Form- 
erly used internally as a demulcent. Now used only for oint- 
ments, cerates, plasters, etc. 

Adulterations. — Insoluble substances, like meal, earth, etc., 
are detected by melting and straining the wax. If the fracture 
is resinous instead of waxy, rosin has probably been added and 
may be dissolved out by cold alcohol, which does not affect wax. 
Fatty substances, like tallow, suet, etc., cause wax to break with 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 43 

a smooth, somewhat greasy fracture. Paraffin or ceresin (a na- 
tive paraffin) is detected by treating' Avax with ether, and if this 
dissolves more than fifty per cent paraffin is present ; or by heat- 
ing the suspected acid with fuming Nordhausen sulphuric acid 
which destroys the wax and allows the paraffin to float on top 
unchanged. The specific gravity is taken; additions of rosin, 
stearin or Japan wax make it heavier, Avhile ceresin, paraffin, 
suet, tallow, spermaceti or lard make it lighter. 

Cera Alba 

N. White Wax. — 0. Bleached yellow beeswax. The wax is 
melted and allowed to fall in thin streams on a revolving cylin- 
der, which is constantly kept wet. The wax congeals in thin rib- 
bon-like strips, which are bleached by exposing to air, sunshine 
and moisture. An inferior method of bleaching is with chlorine, 
etc. — D. When sufficiently bleached, white Avax is melted and 
formed into thin circular discs of about ten centimeters in di- 
ameter, or sometimes into small square cakes. It is Avhite, shin- 
ing, translucent in thin layers, harder than yellow Avax, and with- 
out taste or odor. Its specific gravity is from 0.950 to 0.960 at 
25° C. — U. Same as of yellow wax. 

Adulterations. — Melt a small piece of white wax in boiling 
water; if Avhite lead or other insoluble matter Avas added it will 
sink to the bottom ; if starch or flour Avas added it can be de- 
tected by testing the Avater with iodine for dissoh^ed starch; or 
a piece of white wax may be dissolved in oil of turpentine or ben- 
zin, when the above mentioned substances will sink to the bot- 
tom. Chloroform dissolves about twenty-five per cent of Avhite 
wax; if white wax is treated with eight times its weight of 
chloroform and more than twenty-five per cent is dissolved, it is 
impure. Paraffin is detected as in yellow Avax. The specific 
gravity should also be ascertained. 

(See Dispensatories for further tests and for descriptions of 
Japan Avax, A^egetable Avax, ceresin, ozokerite, etc.) 

Cetaceum 

N. Spermaceti. — O. A peculiar, concrete, fatty substance ob- 
tained from the spermwliale, Physeter macrocephalus ; class Mam- 



44 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

malia; order Cetacea. — D. White, pearly, semitransparent, soft, 
unctuous masses of a crystalline foliaceous structure; faint odor 
and no taste; insoluble in water, soluble in ether, chloroform, 
fixed and volatile oils, etc. Specific gravity 0.935 to 0.944 at 
25° C. — U. Seldom used internally as a demulcent. Its main 
use is in ointments and cerates and in laundry work. 

Acidum Stearicum 

N. Stearic Acid. — 0. From various solid fats, especially tallow. — 
D. Hard, white, glossy masses without taste or odor. — U. An 
ingredient of glycerin suppositories ; otherwise of no use in 
pharmacy. 

Sevum 

N. Suet, Mutton Suet. — 0. The purified internal abdominal fat 
of the sheep, Ovis Aries; class Mammalia; order Ruminantia. It 
is purified by melting and straining ; should be kept in well closed, 
glazed or tin vessels, and should not be used after becoming ran- 
cid. — D. Firm, hard, somewhat brittle, white, fatty masses, without 
taste or odor. Specific gravity 0.937 to 0.952. — C. Stearin, pal- 
mitin and olein. — U. Emollient in ointments, etc 

Beef Suet or Tallow is used for similar purposes; it is softer 
than mutton suet. 

Carbo Animalis 

N. Bone-black, Animal Charcoal. — 0. Bones of domestic ani- 
mals are subjected to destructive distillation by heating to red 
heat in closed retorts without access of air. The residue in the 
retort is animal charcoal. — D. Dull black gritty powder, or small 
lumps, without taste or odor. Insoluble in alcohol or water. — 
C. Charcoal together with phosphate and carbonate of lime. Ani- 
mal charcoal can be distinguished from vegetable charcoal by 
incineration, when it leaves about eighty-five per cent of ash, 
while vegetable charcoal leaves only two or three per cent of 
ash. — U. For decolorizing solutions of vegetable principles, such 
as alkaloids, etc. 

Purified Animal Charcoal is not a drug but a preparation. It 
is made by removing the earthy salts from animal charcoal by 
dilute hydrochloric acid. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 45 

Moschus 

N. Musk. — 0. It comes into the trade in the sacs, glands, or 
"pods" already described in Group IV. The Pharmacopoeia 
recognizes only the contents of these glands, and the retail drug- 
gist probably rarely buys musk in pods, but buys the official drug 
which is described as "the dried secretion from the preputial fol- 
licles of Moschus moscMferus." — D. Musk occurs in small, irregu- 
lar, somewhat unctuous, dark reddish-brown granules, which 
have a bitterish taste and peculiar penetrating and persistent 
odor. Musk is hygroscopic and contains about ten per cent of 
moisture ; when completely dried it loses its odor, but recovers 
it on re-absorbing moisture. C. and U. were described under 
"Moschus," Group IV, which see. 

Adulterations. — Musk is frequently adulterated, especially in 
this form ; dried blood, muscular tissue, hair, etc., are mixed with 
genuine musk, and may be detected by the aid of the microscope. 

Saccharum Lactis 

N. Sugar of Milk. — 0. From the milk of the cow, Bos Taurus; 
class Mammalia; order Ruminantia. — H. Domesticated. — D. The 
whey left after cheese-making is boiled down, when the sugar 
crystallizes out ; this is then redissolved, decolorized and crystal- 
lized on strings or sticks. It usually comes in yellowish-white, 
hard, cylindrical, crystalline masses, from ten to thirty or more 
centimeters long, three to five centimeters in diameter. The 
powder, which is the usual form in which it is kept in the drug- 
stores, is gritty, white, inodorous and but faintly sweetish. Milk 
sugar is soluble in six times its weight of water at 15° C., and in 
an equal weight of boiling water; not soluble in alcohol. — U. 
Said to be an active diuretic ; has been recommended as an article 
of diet in certain diseases ; but in pharmacy it is mainly used as a 
diluent in making powders, its grittiness and hardness helping to 
thoroughly triturate the active ingredients of the powders. 

Colla 

N. Glue. — 0. An impure form of gelatin obtained by boiling 
various animal substances with water; the solution of gelatin so 



46 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

prepared is evaporated until it forms a jelly on cooling, when the 
mass is cut into slices which are dried in the air. — D. Glue or 
Brown Glue comes into the trade in irregular, hard, flat pieces; 
sometimes of a somewhat horny consistence. It breaks with an 
abrupt, often splintery, fracture ; the better grades are brownish 
or yellowish-brown, and transparent ; the poorer grades are 
darker, often almost brownish-black and opaque. White glue 
(Colla Alba) is in similar pieces, but thinner and often flex- 
ible, and usually semi-opaque ; it is considered an inferior glue 
for gluing wood, etc. — U. In solution as a "size" before paint- 
ing or varnishing paper or other porous substances and for 
gluing wood, etc. It is an ingredient of various cements. 

Gelatina 

N. Gelatin. — 0. Made like glue, but from choicer and cleaner 
materials, tendons, sinews, ligaments, bones, etc., free from pu- 
trefaction. — D. The solution is thoroughly clarified, allowed to 
gelatinize, the mass is cut into sheets which are laid on frames 
covered with knotted nets which leave their impress on the dried 
sheets of gelatin ; the sheets are about twenty to twenty-five 
centimeters long and 7.5 to 8 centimeters wide,"" and very thin; 
they are flexible, perfectly transparent, without odor or taste. — 
U. An ingredient in articles of diet. In pharmacy it is used in 
making capsules, glycerin suppositories, for coating pills, etc. 

Shred Gelatin is sheet gelatin cut into very thin shreds by 
means of a cutting machine. It may be distinguished from shred 
isinglass by its transparency and by dissolving in water, while 
shred isinglass merely swells and becomes opaque in "cold water. 

Another form of gelatin is sometimes met with in the trade 
which appears to be made by beating the hot solution into froth, 
which is then allowed to gelatinize, when it is cut into sheets 
and dried ; the sheets are two or three mm. thick and of a frothy 
texture, not flexible and not transparent. 

Ambergris is found floating in the sea, but is also searched for 
in the intestines of captured whales; it is a morbid secretion 
formed in the intestines of the spermwhale ; it is described as 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 47 

occurring in friable, grayish, brownish or blackish masses, some- 
times striated or clotted. It has a peculiar odor, but no taste. 
It is only used in perfumery. 

Hyraceum is supposed to be the dried excrement of Hijra.r 
capensis, a South African animal of about the size of a rabbit, 
It is in small, hard, tenaceous masses, resembling castoreum in 
taste and odor. It is practically obsolete, but was formerly used 
as an anti-spasmodic in the dose of 0.5 to 1 gram. 

Pepsin, Pancreatin, Ingluvin, Fibrin, etc., are preparations 

and not drugs, therefore they are not considered in pharma- 
cognosy. 

GROUP VII 

Semi-Solid Amorphous Animal Substances 

Soft, white, unctuous fatty substance Adeps 

Soft, yellowish-white fatty substance Adeps Lanae 

Adeps 

N. Lard. — 0. The prepared internal or abdominal fat of the 
hog (Sus scrofa; class Mammalia; order Pachydermata), purified 
by washing with water, melting and straining. — H. Domesti- 
cated. — D. White, unctuous, fatty substance, soft enough to re- 
quire being kept in containers which should be impervious to 
fats and should be kept well closed; odor peculiar but faint, 
and free from rancidity ; taste, insipid. Specific gravity, about 
0.917 at 25° C. Not soluble in water and but very slightly so 
in alcohol; soluble in ether, benzin. chloroform, etc. — U. Mainly 
as a base for ointments, etc. 

Adulterations. — Lard is extensively adulterated with cotton- 
seed oil, for the detection of which the official tests should be 
made. It should also be tested for alkalies, starch and salt (chlo- 
rides), and it should be rejected for pharmaceutical uses if it has 
become rancid. 

Adeps Lanae 

N. Lanolin, Anhydrous Wool-Fat, Wool-Fat. — 0. The purified 
fat of the wool of sheep (Oris Aries; class Mammalia; order Rami- 



48 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

nantia), free from water. — H. Domesticated. — D. Yellowish-white 
or nearly white, tenacious, ointment-like substance, having only a 
faint odor; insoluble in water but can be mixed with twice its 
weight of water without losing its ointment-like consistence. Pure 
wool-fat is more tenacious than the hydrous article of the Pharma- 
copoeia. — C. A mixture of ethers of cholesterin with the ordinary 
constituents of fat. — U. It is claimed that wool-fat is more readily 
absorbed by the skin than other fats for which reason it is popu- 
lar as an ointment base. It is also employed for softening the 
skin and rendering it smooth, as in cosmetic preparations for re- 
moving wrinkles from the face and neck, or for improving the 
form and increasing the plumpness of women's bosoms, etc. 

Adeps Lanae Hydrosus is Adeps Lanae combined with not less 
than 25 and not more than 30 per cent of water ; this is the form 
in which wool-fat is most generally employed in pharmacy. It 
is softer and less tenacious than the anhydrous wool-fat, and 
therefore makes a smoother ointment. 

Civet is a semi-solid, unctuous, yellowish or brownish substance 
obtained from a pouch situated between the external genitals and 
the anus of the Civet cat of Africa, or of East India. It is ob- 
tained from animals confined for the purpose. 'It is often put up 
in horns. It possesses an odor resembling that of musk and is 
used in perfumery for similar purposes as musk, but is obsolete 
as a remedy. 

Butter is sometimes enumerated among animal drugs. 

GROUP VIII 

Liquid Amorphous Animal Substances 

Syrupy, sweet, aromatic, sometimes granular liquid ..Mel 

Viscid, greenish-brown liquid Fel Bovis 

Yellowish to brownish fixed oil with fishy odor Oleum Morrhuae 

Pale yellowish or colorless fixed oil Oleum Adipis 

Pale yellow to yellowish-brown oil Oleum Bubulum 

Mel 

N. Honey. — 0. A saccharine fluid prepared by the honey-bee, 
Apis mellifera; class Insecta; order Hymenoptera. — H. Temperate 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 49 

and tropical countries. — D. "Virgin honey" is a light-colored pale 
yellow, syrupy liquid, obtained by merely draining* the honey- 
comb ; "Clarified honey" is darker colored and is obtained by 
pressing the honey-comb, or by melting it and then expressing. 
Honey varies from a thin syrupy fluid to a lard-like consistence, 
and in color from a pale yellow to a yellowish-brown ; its taste and 
odor depend largely on the flowers from which it was gathered by 
the bees, but it always has a peculiar aromatic odor and a sweet, 
peculiar flavor that sometimes leaves an acrid after-taste. On 
keeping for some time the sugar which it contains becomes granu- 
lar. — C. It is practically a solution of glucose in water flavored 
with the flavor of flowers modified and added to by the flavor of 
the gastric juice of the bee. — U. As a flavoring agent. Its use in 
mouth-washes should be discouraged, and glycerin be used instead, 
as the latter is antiseptic, while honey favors the fermentations on 
which some of the diseases of the mouth depend. 

Fel Bovis 

N. Oxgall; Ox-Bile. — 0. The fresh bile of beeves; Bos Taurus; 
class Mammalia; order Ruminantia. — -D. When bought from the 
butcher it is contained in the gall-bladder; it is a greenish or 
greenish-brown viscid liquid, having a peculiar, unpleasant odor 
and an intensely bitter taste. Neutral or faintly alkaline. — U. 
In medicine only the purified oxgall is employed as a tonic and 
laxative, supposed to be beneficial in cases with deficient secre- 
tion of bile. The dose of purified oxgall is about 0.5 gram. 

Oleum Morrhuse 

N. Oleum Jecoris Aselli; Cod Liver Oil. — 0. A fixed oil obtained 
from the livers of the cod fish; Gadus Morrliua, and other varie- 
ties of Gadus; class Pisces; order Teleostia-. — H. Seas of Northern 
Europe and America. — D. There are three kinds of cod-liver oil, 
differing according to the mode of preparation ; Avhite or pale yel- 
low, yellowish-brown and dark-brown. The pale yellow oil is 
the kind demanded by the Pharmacopoeia, as it is made from the 
freshest livers, while the dark-brown is made from partially de- 
composed livers. The taste and odor are characteristic, and are 
the best criterions for recognizing as well as judging of the qual- 



50 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ity of the oil. An oil that deposits a large quantity of solid 
granular fat at about 0° C. (freezing point) is of inferior qual- 
ity ; the best cod liver oil congeals at a considerably lower tem- 
perature. Specific gravity about 0.918 to 0.922 at 25° C— U. As 
a nutritive ; it is supposed also to possess some alterative proper- 
ties. Dose: Tablespoonful three times a day. 

Adulterations. — Cod liver oil is sometimes adulterated, and the 
official tests should be applied to determine its purity. 

Oleum Adipis 

N. Lard Oil.— 0. A fixed oil expressed from lard at a low tem- 
perature. — D. A colorless or pale yellow, oily liquid, having a 
peculiar odor and a bland taste ; it has a specific gravity of 0.905 
to 0.915 at 25° C. At the freezing temperature (0° C.) it congeals 
to a semi-solid white mass resembling lard in appearance. It is 
used in making the ointment of mercuric nitrate. 

Neat's-Foot Oil (Oleum bubulum) is obtained by boiling the 
fatty tissue of cattle with water and skimming off and straining 
the oil. Pale yellow oil with little or no odor or taste. At freez- 
ing temperature (0° C.) it becomes opaque. Its specific gravity 
is about 0.916. Not used in pharmacy. 

Blood, Milk, White of Egg, and Yolk of Egg are sometimes de- 
scribed as drugs; the latter is always taken from fresh eggs and 
is described in Group III. 

Glycerin, Lactic Acid, Koumys, Kefir, etc., are preparations 
and not drugs and therefore are not described in pharmacognosy. 



VEGETABLE DRUGS 

We come now to the consideration of the more important group 
of vegetable drugs. To understand these drugs we must study 
several preliminary branches of knowledge, namely, Botany, 
structural and physiological, including the microscopical struc- 
ture of plants; and Microscopy to the extent at least of being 
able to make temporary preparations for examinations, and per- 
haps a few simple permanent mounts. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 51 

BOTANY 

Botany is of comparatively subordinate interest to the pharma- 
cist and the study of a simple work on the subject, such as Gray's 
Lessons in Botany, will suffice for all practical purposes. There is 
a tendency in certain quarters to give botairy an undue prominence 
as a stud} T for pharmacists, both as to the time devoted to it, and 
as to the amount of detail taught. 

This exaggeration of the importance of botany at the expense of 
time that might be more profitably devoted to pharmacognosy, re- 
minds one of the old gentleman who said that the Germans, in 
speaking English, often put the " rm-pha'-sis" on the wrong 
syllable. 

The study of botany is no doubt a fascinating one, calculated to 
give much enjoyment to an enthusiastic student, but it should be 
taught in colleges of pharmacy with direct reference to the needs 
of the pharmacist, aiming merely to make him a good pharmacog- 
nosist and with no aim to make the druggist an accomplished and 
thorough botanist. If a student likes the study and wishes to per- 
fect himself in it, he should do so under no mistaken idea that it 
is essential to his becoming either a good pharmacist or a good 
pharmacognosist ; this being kept in mind the student may de- 
vote as much time and study to botany as he pleases, but the es- 
sentials, as taught in the book referred to, are sufficient for prac- 
tical pharmaceutical purposes. 

From the book mentioned above a student can learn to know the 
different parts of plants when he sees them, which is practically 
all that he needs of structural botany now. The general facts in 
regard to the structure of plants will be studied a little farther 
on, and the details particularly relating to the different parts of 
plants forming separate groups of drugs will be considered when 
describing those groups. Recognizing the minor value of a botan- 
ical classification of drugs, no stress is placed on this subject be- 
cause it is of little or no practical use to the pharmacognosist or 
pharmacist. Systematic modern pharmacognosy being based to 
a great extent on a knowledge of the microscopical structure of 
plants we must study this branch of knowledge rather thoroughly, 
and as a preliminary study we must devote a little time to a 
consideration of microscopy. 



52 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

MICROSCOPY 

This study should include not only the study of the microscop- 
ical structure of drugs, which is also taught in the lectures on 
pharmacognosy, but also the technology of the microscope ; com- 
mencing with a study of the principles of optics it leads the stu- 
dent to a knowledge of the structure and uses of the microscope 
and its accessories; it explains all the methods of preparing both 
temporary and permanent vegetable histological specimens; it 
teaches all methods of cutting, bleaching and staining sections, 
and all methods of mounting them, dry and in all the different 
media that are employed ; all methods of measuring, drawing and 
photographing microscopical preparations, for book illustration 
or lantern slides ; and in fact gives such a knowledge of all matters 
pertaining to the microscope that the student becomes able to in- 
telligently judge of the value of any microscope he may wish to 
buy and fitted to use the instrument for any branch of science 
whatever. 

In this Handbook we cannot dwell so extensively on the use of 
the microscope but must content ourselves with the general prin- 
ciples and simplest manipulations only. The student of this book 
who is not a student attending college, where the necessary micro- 
scopes are provided for use in the laboratory, need not imagine 
that it is necessary to spend much money to follow the instruc- 
tion; in fact, a Coddington lens magnifying about ten diameters, 
or a quite simple and cheap "dissecting microscope," will be suf- 
ficient for most of the work to be described, and the cost need not 
exceed a few dollars. With even such simple appliances the earn- 
est student can follow the notes and examine the structure of 
drugs and become quite an expert pharmacognosist, but if money 
is no object a good compound microscope may be bought and the 
investment will amply pay in knowledge and in pleasure. 

A Luminous Body is one that emits light, such as the sun, stars, 
lamps, electric lights, etc. All our sources of artificial light are 
incandescent, or glowing from heat. Light is a wave-motion in the 
"ether" of space which permeates our atmosphere as well; it is 
emitted in every direction by a luminous body, and an undulation 
or wave of light once started proceeds in an absolutely straight 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 53 

line as long as it traverses a substance of the same density, as 
for instance, celestial space. 

A "ray of light" is an imaginary isolated wave or undulation 
going in a given straight direction and of practically no width or 
thickness; really a "ray of light" does not exist, because light is 
not a substance but merely a motion. 

Transparent Bodies or Substances permit rays of light or light- 
waves to pass through them, so that we can see the form of objects 
beyond (as for example: air, water, glass, etc.); sometimes, how- 
ever, a transparent body may intercept some waves of light, per- 
mitting only a portion of certain wave-length to pass through, the 
effect being that the transparent body appears not colorless but 
colored (as' for example: red, blue, green or yellow glass, etc.). 

Opalescent, Translucent or Diaphanous substances permit light 
to pass through more or less perfectly, but their structure inter- 
feres with the course of the light waves, so that the form of an 
object cannot be seen through them (as for example: ground glass, 
white wax, etc.). This is due to irregular and interfering reflec- 
tions and refractions which may take place on account of surface 
roughness, as in ground glass, or to the inner arrangement of the 
texture of the substance, as in tissue paper or white wax. 

Many translucent or semi-opaque substances may be made 
clearer or even transparent by filling the interstices in their tex- 
ture with a substance having a refractive power similar to that of 
their fibers or particles, or by covering their surfaces with a 
varnish. 

A few simple experiments will prove instructive. Powder some 
clear glass and put it into a test-tube ; it will appear as an opaque 
white powder ; pour on it some turpentine and it becomes trans- 
parent. Drop a little balsam of fir on the rough surface of ground 
glass and press on it a piece of clear transparent glass; the ground 
glass becomes transparent by the abolition of irregular surface 
refractions and reflections. Take white tissue paper and fill its 
pores with olive or castor oil; it becomes translucent by the aboli- 
tion of interfering refractions and reflections within its textures 
or fibers ; or compare ordinary tissue paper with paraffin paper, in 
which latter the interfibrous spaces have been filled with paraffin. 

Opaque Bodies permit no light to pass through them. 

Opaqueness is often only relative ; a single sheet of white paper 



54 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

is translucent, but a dozen or a hundred sheets together will prob- 
ably be as opaque as a brick wall. A gold coin is opaque ; moisten 
a piece of glass and attach a bit of gold-leaf and by holding it up 
to the light the gold will be found to transmit a greenish, bluish or 
purplish light, the color depending on the thinness of the gold-leaf. 
That the gold itself is transparent in thin enough sheets is proved 
by examining the film with a microscope or lens ; any holes in the 
leaf will transmit white light, while the greenish or bluish light 
passes through the gold where the microscope shows no break of 
continuity. 

It is not ncessary here to enter at length into a consideration of 
the structure of the microscope. A simple microscope is a single 
lens, or an achromatic combination of lenses acting as a single 
lens. Such lenses are of low power but will enable the student to 
do a great deal of really good work and to acquire much valuable 
information. A Coddington lens, or a so-called linen-tester, should 
be obtained. Still better, because more convenient, is a "dissect- 
ing microscope ' ' of the simplest kind, because this is provided with 
an upright rod for supporting the lens, leaving both hands free 
for manipulating the specimen or slide which is being examined. 
For the more thorough examination of the mounted specimen a 
compound miscrope may be employed. 

A few dozen slides (glasses three by one inches in size), and 
half an ounce of cover glasses of about five-eighths inches diam- 
eter may be purchased from the optician. 

If we wish to examine a drug in a hurry, with no intention of 
keeping the specimen,, we require little more apparatus. If it is 
a powder, as for instance lupulin, kamala, lycopodium, or any 
other powdered drug, a little of the powder is moistened with a 
drop of water or glycerin, and placed on a slide. A cover glass is 
then carefully dropped on it, first lowering one edge and then 
dropping the cover glass so that the air is driven out but not with 
enough force to drive out the liquid and the specimen. A little 
practice will enable one to judge how much liquid to take. Such 
a preparation requires a rather high power, however, and cannot 
satisfactorily be examined unless one has a compound microscope. 
If water or glycerin does not make the object transparent, we may 
have to treat it as we did the tissue paper in our little preliminary 
experiment; we use turpentine or some volatile oil, such as oil of 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 55 

cloves, or oil of cedar, to make the drug more transparent; if that 
will not make it clear, we take a drop of solution of potassium 
hydroxide or of labarraque solution instead of water or glycerin, 
each time taking a bit of fresh material, of course. This will dis- 
solve the cell contents and render the cell transparent, but the 
specimen will soon swell and be spoiled. This method will there- 
fore answer only for temporary and immediate examination. A 
little soaking in alcohol is often of use in removing too dense 
color. 

Seeds, surfaces of leaves, fruits like anise, fennel, caraway, etc., 
may be examined without any preparation, and with the single 
lens. Many objects of great interest and beauty will be found 
among these drugs. Roots, rhizomes, barks, etc., should be cut 
with a sharp knife so as to present a smooth surface ; the section 
is sometimes much smoother if the drug is previously soaked in 
water. This surface may be examined without further prepara- 
tion, but usually more detail can be seen by putting a drop of glyc- 
erin on the smooth surface, dropping a cover glass on it, and then 
examining. Some drugs of this kind, however, will not show much 
detail and sections must be prepared. The drug is soaked in water 
to soften it, and then a thin transverse slice is cut from it with 
a sharp knife or razor. A little practice will enable the student 
to cut fairly good sections in this way, but for making first-class 
mounts a mechanical device known as a microtome must be used, 
so that the sections may be of uniform thickness throughout. Sec- 
tions should be cut as thin as possible. 

Such a section may then be laid in a drop of water, glycerin or 
alcohol on a slide and covered with a cover glass ; it is then ready 
for examination. If it is not clear enough it may be soaked for a 
few moments in solution of potassium hydroxide, then gently 
washed in water with a camel hair pencil, and examined as just 
suggested. Or the freshly cut section may be dropped into alcohol, 
then changed to absolute alcohol, then into oil of cloves, and then 
transferred to a slide, on which a drop of oil of cloves has been 
placed, covered with a cover glass and examined. 

Watch glasses or the lids of small glass or porcelain ointment 
jars are good receptacles in which to do any soaking of sections 
that may be necessary. 

If the slide is to be examined with a microscope, care must be 



56 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

taken to wipe away any surplus liquor that may be pressed out from 
under the cover glass, to avoid soiling the instrument. After the 
specimen has been examined it may be w T ashed off in water, or in 
a little alcohol if necessary, and the glasses rubbed dry with a bit 
of tissue paper. 

But if we wish to preserve the specimen for future study, a 
permanent mount must be made. The same kind of glass slides, 
three by one inches, is used, but it would be well to have an assort- 
ment of sizes of cover glasses, some of one-half, five-eighths and 
three-fourth inches in diameter. A few dozen small brass curtain 
rings, five-eighths inch outside diameter, should also be obtained. 

The appliances required for making permanent mounts are few 
and inexpensive; the student should procure a few camel hair pen- 
cils ; a few watch glasses or one-half ounce or one ounce white por- 
celain ointment jars with covers, a delicate pair of scissors ; one or 
two small knives similar to the smallest knives in a student's dis- 
secting case; a few needles, the eye ends of which have been 
pushed into the ends of small wooden handles, for which cheap 
pen holders will answer very well. 

A few spring clips for holding on the cover glasses may be 
bought from the optician. A few one-ounce vials are provided 
with perforated corks in which ordinary pipette medicine drop- 
pers are inserted so that the end of the pipette will reach nearly 
to the bottom of the vial. 

A few small bell glasses to cover slides which are in process of 
preparation and protect them from dust may also be used, but 
placing such slides in the bottom of empty cigar boxes and closing 
the lid is just as good. 

In one of the vials with pipettes w T e put glycerin; in another 
creosote water; in a third a mixture of glycerin and water; and we 
add a feAv ordinary vials, one containing alcohol, one absolute 
alcohol and one oil of cloves. 

Evaporate a few ounces of clear, clean Canada balsam until it 
is thick and nearly solid on cooling. Pour one-half ounce of this 
thick balsam, while warm, into a vial and add one-half fluid ounce 
of chloroform ; leave the balance of the balsam in its thick condi- 
tion; or balsam already prepared and put up in tubes can be 
bought. Set all these vials in a closet or deep cigar box where 
they are protected from dust. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 57 

Buy a small vial of each, Brunswick black, zinc-white, and picro- 
carmine. 

If economy does not forbid, a section cutter and a self-centering 
turn-table may be added, but the latter are not necessary for 
serviceable work, but they add much to the mechanical perfection 
of the finished slides. 

There are practically three methods of mounting slides ; dry, in 
a solid medium, or in fluids. 

We will first consider dry mounts. Of many drugs Ave need 
simply examine the surfaces, for instance, when comparing digi- 
talis leaves with mullein leaves which are said to be occasionally 
added or substituted for the first; or in examining seeds and fruits 
like anise, conium, etc. 

First: Prepare the slide by pasting in the center a disc of black 
needle paper, or of white paper, made by punching with a punch 
such as is .used for making gun- wads or a cork borer ; then punch 
similar discs from different thicknesses of paper, cardboard and thin 
pasteboard. In these discs punch holes one-half inch in diameter 
with a smaller punch, so that when completed Ave have rings of 
different thicknesses. When Ave want to make a dry mount Ave 
paste one of these rings on the paper disc on the slide, choosing 
black or Avhite as it looks best for a particular object, so that Ave 
have a cell Avith a Avhite or black bottom, and of a depth Avhich is 
slightly greater than the thickness of the object to be mounted. 
A bit of the leaf, preferably cut Avith a cork borer on a piece of 
leather into a disc a little less than one-half inch in diameter, is 
then fastened to the bottom of the cell by means of a little schellac 
varnish or tragacanth paste and pressed flat by gently pressing 
into place Avith a cork having about the same diameter as the ob- 
ject. Clean a cover glass three-fourths inch in diameter by gently 
rubbing between two pieces of moist filtering paper between the 
thumb and index finger, then in the same manner with a soft, 
Avell-Avorn silk handkerchief and after rendering the upper side 
of the paper ring adhesive with shellac varnish or tragacanth 
paste put on the cover glass. Finally punch a hole one-half inch 
in diameter from a strip of colored glazed paper and paste it over 
the upper surface of the slide so that the opening in the strip cor- 
responds to the cell in Avhich the preparation is mounted; the 
edges of the paper must then be cut Avith scissors along the edges 



58 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

of the slide and when dry a label may be pasted on one end of 
the slide on which the name of the object is written. 

Seeds and other dry opaque objects may be mounted in the same 
way, care being taken that the cover glass is as near as possible to 
the upper surface of the object without actually touching it, and 
that the prepared cell and the object itself is thoroughly dry be- 
fore the cover glass is put in place. 

Second: Paint a circle five-eighths inch in diameter on the slide 
with Brunswick black or with zinc-white, according to whether 
the object looks best on a dark or white background. Place one of 
the curtain rings on this painted circle and allow it to dry. The 
bottom and sides of the cell thus formed must then be painted with 
the same cement and allowed to harden. Cells of this kind should 
be prepared some days or even weeks in advance, so that they are 
thoroughly seasoned when wanted for use. The well-dried object 
to be mounted is to be fastened to the bottom of the cell by a little 
of the same cement of which the cell is made, and allowed to 
harden in place, always protecting the cells against dust in all 
stages of preparation. Finally paint a thin circle of the same 
cement on the upper edge of the curtain ring and place a clean, 
dry cover glass five-eighths inch in diameter on the ring. When 
fast, the outside of the cell is painted with the same cement so 
that it overlays the glass cover, and if this work was all done on 
the self-centering turn-table, ornamental colored rings may be 
put on as a finishing touch. 

If the zinc-white cement becomes too thick to flow readily, 
thin by adding a little benzole. Use the brush well filled with 
cement when putting in the bottom of the cell, so that when the 
cement dries it will be perfectly smooth like fine white porcelain. 
Instead of making dark cells with Brunswick black, the bottom 
of a zinc-white cell may be painted black with ivory black such 
as is put up in collapsible tubes for artist's use. Such cells are 
harder and there is no danger of the cement softening in warm 
weather and allowing the objects to sink into it as sometimes oc- 
curs when we use Brunswick black. 

We come now to the consideration of balsam mounts but as 
this method is used mainly for sections of drugs we will first con- 
sider the making of the sections. The first requisite is that the 
section be cut thin enough; if possible, not more than one cell 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 59 

thickness of the substance to be examined or from %o to Vg mil- 
limeter thick. Practically, cut as thin as possible without tear- 
ing the sections. The knife should be very sharp and should be 
carried across the drug with one steady sweep and not by cut- 
ting backward and forward. Some drugs can be cut without 
preparation, but the majority of drugs require previous softening 
in water over night, or if very resinous they may be soaked in 
alcohol to remove the resin and then in water to soften them. 
Woods and woody roots, rhizomes, hard barks, etc., may some- 
times require boiling in water to make them soft and flexible 
enough to give good sections. If the sections are to be cut with- 
out a microtome or section cutter, the substance is held in the left 
hand and the sections are cut by drawing the knife towards one- 
self, much in the manner in which lead pencils are sharpened. A 
little practice will enable one to do good work, although, of 
course, the serviceable portions of the sections may be smaller 
than when cut by aid of a section cutter. 

If the student works with a section cutter in which an extra 
tube moves up and down in a well-tube, the object is wedged in 
this tube with cork or elder pith, or if it is hard like wood, by 
simply forcing a piece of it into the tube so that the end projects 
about one centimeter. This tube, Avith the object to be cut into 
sections, is then placed in the section cutter and gradually raised 
by means of the screw until the knife carried over the top plate 
of the apparatus cuts off a portion of the object and leaves it with 
a smooth surface. While cutting, the surface of the object and 
the knife should be kept thoroughly wet to prevent tearing the 
sections. By means of the screw the object is raised a trifle and 
a section cut off with one steady sweep of the knife ; if it tears, 
try a little thicker section, until the proper thickness has been 
ascertained, when the balance of the sections are cut of that 
thickness. Of course the knife must be sharp and without 
notches on its cutting edge, and the proper thickness of section 
for each object is the thinnest that can be cut without tearing. 
When cut, the section is carefully floated off into a watch glass 
or small procelain saucer by means of a small quill camel hair 
pencil. Section after section may be cut until the object no 
longer projects above the inner tube, and if we were at all care- 



60 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ful we ought to have at least thirty or forty sections from the 
portion of object that protruded. 

Another method of cutting sections which is better adapted to 
soft or small objects, is to imbed them in paraffin; make a paper 
tube of the thickness of the inner tube of the section cutter, fit 
a cork in the end of this tube and then fix the object to be cut 
(which must first be properly softened by soaking in water, if 
necessary) to the cork in such a manner that it will stand upright 
in the tube when the cork is inserted in one end of it; then pour 
in melted paraffin, which, when it cools, will form a plug of 
paraffin in which the object is imbedded. This plug is then fas- 
tened in the section cutter and sections are cut from it in the 
same manner as just described. These sections are then placed 
in benzene or chloroform to dissolve the paraffin, the sections are 
then removed to alcohol and from that they may be transferred 
to such other mounting media as may be desired. 

We examine these sections with a lens, choose one of the 
thinnest and most perfect ones and mount it permanently in 
glycerin or glycerin jelly, as will be explained presently, so that 
we may study the cell-contents, starch, etc. 

The sections of many drugs, however, are unsatisfactory when 
examined and mounted in this way and we must first clear them; 
the simplest way being to place a section in a watch glass with dis- 
tilled water and then wash it gently by stippling with a camel 
hair pencil, so that much, if not most, of the cell contents may 
be washed out. If this simple washing sufficiently clears them, 
we mount such a section, but usually we must clear them with 
chemical solutions to remove all the cell-contents, which, by the 
way, are of little or no importance in the examination of most of 
the drugs. 

Add to a teaspoonful or two of distilled water, six to eight 
drops of solution of potassium hydroxide and thirty drops of 
labarraque solution, and place a few of the sections into this mix- 
ture. This removes starch, protoplasm, chlorophyll, etc., and 
leaves only the cell walls, which are at the same time bleached 
white. To succeed well in this, the sections should be cut thin- 
ner than the length of the cells so that every cell in the section is 
opened from one side or the other ; if the section is so thick that 
many cells remain whole, the cell-contents will swell and lose 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 61 

their shape, but will not wash out and the result will be disap- 
pointing. Allow the sections to remain in this solution, from a 
few hours to a few days, as may be necessary; an occasional ex- 
amination will show when the sections are clear, when this solu- 
tion should be poured off and replaced by two or three changes 
of distilled water, and when sufficiently washed, by a twenty or 
twenty-five per cent mixture of alcohol with water, in which the 
sections can then be preserved for years until wanted for perma- 
nent mounting. 

Some prefer to use undiluted labarraque solution instead of 
the above diluted solution, but it requires more careful watching, 
and even in spite of this, many delicate sections go to pieces 
and are ruined; of course the undiluted solution may clear and 
bleach a section in a few minutes, but it is usually safer and bet- 
ter to "make haste slowly," and the method recommended will 
give excellent results. 

Immersing the sections in chlorine water will also sometimes 
give excellent results ; when sufficiently bleached, wash in several 
changes of distilled water and preserve in diluted alcohol of 
about twenty-five per cent strength. 

Still another method of clearing sections or powdered drugs, 
is to macerate in a concentrated solution of hydrated chloral in 
water. 

One of these cleared sections may be stained by placing it in a 
watch glass or small porcelain dish and covering it with a few 
drops of picro-carmine, which stains sclerenchyma or stone cells 
yellow and cellulose cell walls red. After ten or fifteen minutes 
we may drain off the picro-carmine and pour on a few drops of 
alcohol (commercial ninety-five per cent) and gently wash out 
the excess of staining fluid with a soft camel-hair brush; then 
transfer to another watch glass and cover with a little alcohol, 
drain off the alcohol and add a little absolute alcohol to remove 
all water from the section and finally transfer carefully from the 
absolute alcohol to a little vial containing oil of cloves, in which 
the section may remain until it is to be permanently mounted. Of 
course Ave may as well take a number of different sections and 
treat them together as there will usually be little or no difficulty 
to correctly label them, as we can compare with the sections pre- 
served in the diluted alcohol, but if the sections closely resemble 



62 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

each other we must keep them separated unless we are quite 
familiar with their appearance. 

In giving elementary instructions for the preparation of 
mounts, such as are intended to be here given, it is unnecessary 
to dwell on the different methods of staining for the differentia- 
tion of different tissues. Information on this subject must be ob- 
tained from some special Avork on vegetable histology. 

When we have accumulated a number of sections in oil of 
cloves or oil of cedar we are ready to mount them in Canada 
balsam. For this purpose it is well to have a warm table, which 
can be cheaply made by a tinsmith in the shape of a tin box 
about ten inches square on top and from four to six inches deep ; 
a screw-cap is soldered in one corner to allow water to be poured 
in, and near it a circular cup-shaped depression which will hold 
the bottle in which we keep the hardened Canada balsam. When 
the box is filled with hot water and the screw-cap is fastened 
down, the apparatus should be water-tight. This box may be 
fitted into a wooden tray for convenience of handling and to 
avoid too rapid radiation of heat from the box. When filled 
with hot water the top of the box becomes a hot table which 
will not become overheated and which will retain sufficient heat 
to allow us to work for several hours before it becomes too cool. 

When we wish to mount sections in balsam, we first clean a 
few more glass slides and cover glasses than we will probably 
require, to make allowance for accidental soiling. The tin box is 
then filled with water having a temperature of 65° to 80° C. 
(150° to 175° F.), the screAv-cap fastened down and the bottle 
with hard balsam placed in the cup-shaped depression or well. 
When the balsam is melted a few slide glasses are laid on the 
warm surface of tin and a little of the balsam is then placed in 
the center of each slide by means of a small syringe or a glass 
rod, care being taken that no air bubbles are inclosed in the 
balsam. We next take a small forceps and taking a section from 
the oil of cloves, we thrust it deep into the liquid balsam on a 
slide. The adhering oil of cloves will remain on the top of the 
balsam. We then take another forceps and lifting a cover glass 
by its edge warm it slightly over a lamp and hold it over the drop 
of balsam on the slide. We take the straight needle in its holder 
in our left hand and hold it at the left margin of the balsam drop, or 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 63 

a little to the left of the section in the center, if the balsam has 
spread too far. The lower edge of the cover glass is then 
steadied against the needle-point and the cover is allowed to 
slowly sink down on the balsam, driving before it all the oil of 
cloves and some of the superfluous balsam. If we are not careful 
to push the section to the bottom of the balsam on the slide, the 
section may occasionally be carried out with the superfluous 
balsam, but if it shows a tendency to do so, we can usually manip- 
ulate' the cover glass to prevent it or use one of the needles to 
hold the object under the cover glass. We may also occasionally 
require the needles to tease out any air-bubbles that may acci- 
dentally be held under the covers, but a little practice will enable 
one to judge pretty accurately how much balsam to put on the 
slide and how to manipulate to avoid air-bubbles. 

By a little more or less pressure on one side or the other of the 
cover glass the section can be correctly centered and a spring 
clip may be applied to press the cover glass down firmly as well 
as to make the film of balsam as thin and flat as possible, and 
then the slide may be laid away on a board to cool. 

When the slides are cool and the balsam is sufficiently hard- 
ened the superfluous balsam may be carefully removed with a 
warmed knife, but care must be taken not to get the knife under 
the edge of the cover glass or the latter may be cracked and the 
slide spoiled. In such a case the whole slide must be warmed, 
the pieces of cover glass slipped off to the side and the section, if 
uninjured, returned to the oil of cloves to be remounted later 
on in the same way. After most of the balsam has been removed 
with the knife, the slide is cleaned with a soft toothbrush dipped 
in alcohol, then with another soft brush with soap and water, 
finally rinsed in clean water and dried, and then a label is affixed 
to one end of the slide. Or if a finish is desired, the slide may be 
put on a turn-table and a ring of shellac varnish (shellac dis- 
solved in alcohol) run around the cover glass, overlapping the 
edge of the cover glass and a little beyond it on the slide. 

Or we may mount our sections in a drop of the solution of the 
thickened balsam in chloroform or benzol, manipulating as ex- 
plained above, but without warming. The section taken from 
the oil of cloves should be rinsed in chloroform or benzol, as the 
case may be, before placing it in the balsam on the slide, and 



64 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

when the spring clip is applied the slide must be laid away to 
harden. It takes a long time for it to do this, and this method 
of mounting is not recommended, except for very delicate 
sections. 

It has been suggested that a ring of the size of the cover glass 
be painted on the back of the glass slide on the self-centering 
turn-table to enable the manipulator to center his object properly 
when mounting in either balsam or glycerin jelly; when the 
mount is ready this ring of color is, of course, washed off in 
cleaning the slide. 

For most purposes it is best to mount in one of the fluids 
already mentioned; but as the mounts in glycerin jelly present 
nearly all the advantages of the fluid mounts, combined with the 
simplicity of balsam mounts, we will first consider this method 
of working before proceeding to the more difficult mounting in 
cells. 

Glycerin jelly may be purchased from the dealer in microscopic 
sundries. It is practically a jelly made by dissolving gelatin in 
glycerin with some antiseptic to prevent moulding. The mass is 
similar to that of the hectograph pad, or to gelatin suppositories, 
special care being taken to have the materials absolutely clean 
and free from dirt. It is more satisfactory to buy the small 
quantity needed, than to attempt to make it. 

For mounting in glycerin jelly proceed as for balsam mounts; 
use the warm table, but at a lower temperature than for balsam, 
only just enough heat being used to liquefy the jelly, the bottle 
in which it is contained being placed in the depression in the 
table. A watch glass with a small quantity of jelly is placed on 
the table and the sections to be mounted are transferred from the 
preserving fluids to this glass and immersed in the fluid glycerin 
jelly, where they are left for a few minutes until they are thor- 
oughly permeated by the mounting medium the watch glass being 
meanwhile covered to prevent dust from falling into it. Of 
course, it will be understood that sections or objects preserved 
in oil of cloves cannot be mounted in this medium, only those in 
the watery fluids being available ; those kept in alcohol may be 
rinsed in distilled water and then transferred to the jelly. If 
objects are mounted direct from the preserving fluids it may 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 65 

prevent the setting or gelatinizing of the medium and the mount 
may prove a failure. 

The mounting is proceeded with exactly as in the case of bal- 
sam, using the liquefied jelly instead of the liquefied balsam. 
The dropper should be filled by emptying of air, then inserting 
the end in the liquid and filling gently and slowly to avoid air 
bubbles, and it should never be emptied of its air while the 
point is immersed in the jelly, as this would blow the jelly into a 
froth from which it would be almost impossible to remove air- 
bubbles. After the cover glass is applied the slide is put away to 
cool, but the spring clips should not exert more pressure than is 
absolutely necessary to keep the cover in place and the object 
flat. Upon cooling the glycerin jelly "sets," or becomes solid, 
and when thoroughly set the slide must be washed in very cold 
water to remove the excess of glycerin jelly outside of the cover 
glass; it is then rinsed in clean cold water, dried with a bit of 
blotting paper or filter paper and laid away to thoroughly dry, 
when it is finished by painting the edge of the cover glass with a 
ring of cement, such as white-zinc cement, Brunswick Black, 
dammar varnish, or balsam in chloroform. This ring of cement 
is painted so as to be about one-eighth of an inch wide, overlap- 
ping the edge of the cover glass so as to fasten the cover glass to 
the slide. 

For mounting in fluids a turn-table (self-centering preferred) 
is almost indispensable, and the needles in handles and one or a 
few cements complete the necessary materials and appliances. 
Brunswick Black is the most generally useful cement but shellac 
dissolved in alcohol, decanted after settling, is also good. The 
cement is kept in a vial stopped with a very fine velvety cork to 
avoid particles of cork from falling into the vial; in the under 
end of the cork a small camel hair pencil is inserted, which is left 
in the cement when not in use, so that it is always soft and ready 
for use. 

The cells should be prepared in advance by painting a circle 
on a slide ; the inside of this circle must be smaller than the cover 
glass to be used, and the outside must be somewhat larger than 
the cover glass. The slide is laid away in dust-proof boxes until 
this cement-ring is thoroughly hardened. If the cell is not deep 
enough, a second or even third or fourth ring is painted over the 



66 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

first, allowing each to harden before adding the next. An assort- 
ment of such cells should be kept ready for use. 

The objects to be mounted should be soaked in the fluid in 
which they are to be preserved for some time so that they may 
be thoroughly permeated with the fluid. 

When ready to mount the preparation, place a slide with a 
suitable cell on the turn-table and center it; then paint a ring 
on the cement cell so that it will not touch the inner margin of 
the cell at any point. With a shellac cell this ring may be painted 
with benzole solution of balsam; with a Brunswick Black cell 
Brunswick Black is used. When this fresh ring becomes "tacky" 
or sticky, the cell is carefully filled with the fluid (glycerin, creo- 
sote, or chloroform water, etc.), and the object is placed as near 
as possible in the center of the cell; this is done by laying a 
piece of plate-glass on a black paper or velveteen, and using this 
as a table upon which to work, because a delicate object is thus 
best seen. The object is carefully arranged in the cell by aid of 
the mounted needles; after which a clean cover glass is taken up 
with a delicate pair of tweezers or forceps in the right hand. A 
needle is held against the cement cell on the left side, the edge 
of the cover glass is rested against it and then the cover is al- 
lowed slowly to settle down on the cell. By first breathing on 
the under side of the cover glass, the fluid will more readily 
come into contact with it, and there will be less liability to im- 
prison air-bubbles in the cell. When the cover glass is in place, 
press it down gently until it is cemented in place by being in 
close contact with the sticky cement, Avhich can readily be seen 
by reflected light. As long as any part of the circle of cement 
is not in contact with the cover glass, a fault exists which will 
probably result in destroying the mount. In pressing the cover 
into contact with the cement, the pressure must not be applied 
to the center of the cover glass, as this will yield to the pressure, a 
portion of the fluid will be forced out, and when the pressure is 
removed an air-bubble is liable to be drawn under the cover 
glass; then the slide is spoiled and the section must be remounted. 

If the cover glass has been successfully brought into place, the 
slide is laid aside for a little while to allow the cement to be- 
come sufficiently hard to permit the slide to be washed under a 
gentle stream of flowing water from a sponge ; then lay aside to 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 67 

dry. When dry, paint a circle of the same cement over the edge 
of the cover glass, overlaying the latter and fastening it to the 
slide. If the glycerin was not completely washed away before 
adding this last ring, the cover glass will finally crack off and 
the mount will be mined, while, if the ring of cement painted 
on the hardened cell was allowed to touch the glass within the 
cell, the cement will probably run in and eventually replace the 
fluid and thus also ruin the mount, If care was exercised, the 
cell so made is practically permanent, although it may be well to 
paint a thin ring of cement over the outside ring every few years 
to make sure of the integrity of the cell. I have hundreds of 
mounts in glycerin, or glycerin and water, which were made 
over twenty-five years ago and which have never been repainted, 
but which are perfect in all respects to this day. In the watery 
mounts fungoid growths sometimes appear, ruining the original 
slides; but sometimes these slides are very valuable on account 
of the interesting growths that have obscured the original ob- 
ject. Especially interesting is the study of the conjugation of 
some of these low forms of vegetable growth, and until we are 
sure that this adventitious object is valueless we should not be 
in a hurry to reject the slides as ruined. 

The following precautions should be constantly held in mind 
when mounting in fluids: — 

Glycerin, or glycerin and water in ecpial parts, make the best 
and most permanent mounts. Pure glycerin in the course of 
time renders delicate objects very transparent and the glycerin 
and water is perhaps preferable for that reason. The glycerin 
protects against fungoid growths. 

When putting on the ring of cement just before mounting, be 
sure that it is not put on the inner third of the cement cell, for 
when the cover glass drops into place the fresh cement will be 
drawn by capillary attraction, to the inner edge, but not down 
the inner edge. If it touches the glass at the inner edge of the 
cement cell, the cement may run in and ultimately ruin the slide. 

Exert no pressure on the cover glass, except at its margin when 
putting it in place. Be sure to have enough but yet not too much 
fluid in the cell, so that the cell may be completely full when the 
cover glass is in its place ; as glass is elastic, pressure on the 
cover glass, except at its margin, will force out too much fluid 



68 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

and the strain of the glass to regain its shape will draw in air or 
cement, to the great injury of the mount. 

Finally, be absolutely sure that all traces of glycerin are washed 
off from the slide and that the slide is perfectly dry, before putting 
on the finishing circle of cement; carelessness in this respect will 
incur the risk that the cover glass may crack off from the slide 
Of course, this applies as well to the circles of cement that con- 
stitute the cell itself. Even if only a minute crack appears at any 
point, the water of the mounting fluid will eventually evaporate 
and the cell become valueless. 

Only a few words need be added in regard to objects other 
than sections of stems, roots, fruits, etc. The epidermis of leaves 
may be separated by macerating the leaf in water for some days 
when the epidermis can be peeled or torn off in large shreds, — 
the epidermis is best mounted in fluids. Powdered drugs are 
best examined by mounting in water or glycerin, after having 
been first macerated in dilute alcohol to remove too dense color 
if this is necessary. Or the powdered drug may be mounted in 
balsam after treating in the same way as has been described for 
sections. But powdered drugs should not be treated with Labar- 
raque solution, nor with solution of potassium hydroxide, because 
these would destroy starch and other characteristic parts of the 
object to be examined. It is advisable to mount slides of what are 
known to be pure powdered drugs, for comparison with suspected 
specimens, but the latter must not be considered to be willfully 
or intentionally adulterated, unless foreign histological elements 
constitute an appreciable proportion of the specimen, as acci- 
dental foreign matter may remain, due to imperfect garbling 
before grinding. Particles of dust, bits of cotton or jute fibre 
from the original package, insect or vegetable scales or hair, etc., 
are often and unavoidably present. 

PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY 

When a very minute photograph requires a lens for seeing it, it 
is called a micro-photograph ; a large photograph made by enlarg- 
ing a minute object by aid of a microscope, is called a photo-micro- 
graph. The difference should be well remembered. 

Many writers recommend that drawings of the objects be 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



69 



made by the aid of the camera lucida, but this is a useless waste 
of time, as the specimen itself may be reexamined whenever one 
wishes to do so. All slides should be kept in trays, lying flat, 
and be protected from frost in winter and from too great heat in 
summer. If pictures are desired, it is preferable to photograph 
the object, and a few words in regard to sketching and photo- 
graphing the microscopical preparation will therefore be of value. 
The alumni of a college, for instance, could do a great work for 
the furtherance of pharmaceutical education, if they become in- 
terested in such work, by photographing preparations of official 
and officinal drugs, and making lantern slides of the same; then 
the alumni association, gathering these from its various members, 
could from time to time, donate such collections to the college, 
enabling it year after year to illustrate more and more fully the 
subject of pharmacognosy. Many of the alumni are no doubt 
amateur photographers; why could they not occasionally photo- 



^ 



Fig. 9. 



graph a nook in the fields or woods, a verdure-clothed bank 
by the road or streamside, a corner of the fence, etc., showing 
our indigenous medicinal plants as they grow. A photograph of 
a flowering branch, or a twig with fruit, showing the botanical 
features of these wild-growing plants in detail, would all be val- 
uable and welcome additions to the illustrative material. and ap- 
pliances of any college of pharmacy, and each contributor to such 
a collection would not only have pleasure in the work itself, but 
would feel gratification in the thought that he had contributed 
to the success of the college of his choice, and the name on the 
label of his contribution would keep his name in grateful remem- 
brance in the college. 

It may interest some to know how to photograph microscopical 
preparations in an easy manner and without expensive appara- 
tus. I therefore describe my own apparatus, which is illustrated 
herewith (Fig. 9). It consists of a wooden box, about five feet 



70 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



in length; one end is a closed box (a) with door and Russian iron 
roof and chimney, made perfectly light-tight, even the holes for 
ventilation or draught being covered on the inside in such a man- 
ner that no ray of light can escape. The other part of the box 
is open on one side and the inside of this part of the box is 
stained a dull black. In this part a stand or frame (d) slides 
backward and forward, in which a hole 3 1 / 4x4% inches in size has 
been cut with its center exactly opposite the center of the lens, 
which will presently be described. The front of this hole is cov- 
ered by a thin sheet zinc plate in which has been cut very ac- 
curately a hole three inches in diameter, and in such a manner 
that when a photographic plate is put in the frame behind the 




Fig. 10. 



zinc the hole will be centered over the plate, leaving about one- 
eighth of an inch of the plate above and below this margin of 
the zinc. The plate is held tightly in place by a spring clip. In 
the partition between the short closed and long open part of the 
box a hole is also cut and either within this wooden partition or 
on the side towards the open part of the box a sliding shutter is 
attached which can be pulled out and pushed in by a knob on the 
outside (&) and on the side towards the closed part of the box a 
brass plate with screw-thread to carry a microscope objective is 
firmly fastened. This is shown in Fig. 10. 

The stage is movable, sliding in a groove, and may be moved 
back or forward by a milled wheel attached to a long screw, the 
focusing wheel being shown at c in Fig. 9. The upright stage is 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 71 

like a plain microscope stage and holds the slide or object to be 
photographed by means of two spring clips. 

Any method of illumination can be nsed; an electric incandes- 
cent light, a microscopic lamp with condenser, or a plain coal oil 
lamp with bull's eye condenser, or the whole apparatus may be 
open at the end opposite the stage and fitted into the shutter of a 
dark room so that a heliostat mirror may be made to throw direct 
sunlight on the object to be photographed. In this case, however, 
a dark room is necessary and the apparatus must fit into the 
shutter closely so that no rays of light are admitted. I prefer a 
coal oil or a Welsbach gas light. 

To photograph with the latter light no dark room is necessary, 
any room answering the purpose on a dark night. Any dark room 
lantern Avith ruby light is used. To photograph, place the object 
on the stage, adjust the illumination and close the door to the 
closed part of the apparatus. The room should now be absolutely 
dark, but for the rays of light from the safety ruby lantern. In 
the carrier a porcelain plate, three and one-fourth by four and 
one-fourth inches in size, is to be placed so that the mat surface 
shows a white disc three inches in diameter through the hole in 
the zinc plate, and towards the lens. Open the shutter and move 
the carrier f orAvard or backward with the right hand, at the same 
time working the focusing Avheel Avith the left hand until the pro- 
jected image is a little less in size than the focusing disc of porce- 
lain; then use a focusing lens and adjust the focus accurately; this 
can be done much better in this manner than by light transmitted 
through ground glass at the back of a camera. If necessary, re- 
adjust the illumination so that the disc is eA r enly illuminated, and 
then close the shutter slide. RemoA^e the porcelain plate and in- 
sert a three and one-fourth inches by four and one-fourth inches 
dry plate without moving the carrier. Then open the shutter and 
make the exposure, the length of time varying with the plates 
used, the objective employed and the distance of the carrier from 
the lens. A little experience will teach this very soon. The plate 
may then be placed in an envelope and marked with the name of 
the object and the number on the graduated part of the box. 
These graduations are arbitrary but equal distances apart; say one 
or two inches, and Ave prepare a table showing the rate of en- 
largement for eA^ery objective Ave use and all the marks on the 



72 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

graduated box. Of course we make these tables by projecting a 
stage micrometer on the porcelain plate and measuring the pro- 
jected image and calculating the degree of enlargement. The en- 
velopes containing exposed plates may be put in a dark box until 
we have exposed a number ; or we may develop each plate as soon 
as it is exposed so that if it is over or undertimed, we can expose 
another without the trouble of readjusting and refocusing. 

Such plates, when finished, are intended for making standard 
size lantern slides by contact printing, but, of course, different 
sized carriers can be made for larger dry-plates. The apparatus 
should be made large enough for any sized plate it may be desir- 
able to use. 

My own preference for photographing whole sections, etc., is 
to use a Ioav objective, a 72 mm., for instance, and move the car- 
rier to a greater distance. A better result is obtained than by 
using a higher power at a shorter distance. 

When the focusing is done, I take a little strip of opaque 
gummed paper, previously cut and kept assorted in boxes, ac- 
cording to the rate of enlargement, and paste it on a part of the 
unexposed plate, but within the circle of the zinc disc, outside 
of the image of the object, if possible; when the plate is de- 
veloped, this strip comes off and leaves a transparent space, on 
which I draw with a fine pen and photo-engravers' ink a scale 
representing one millimeter divided into fifths of a millimeter, at 
the rate of enlargement indicated by the position of the plate 
carrier and the objective, as previously ascertained and already 
described. This scale is drawn as in the accompanying figure 
| | | | | j, and when a lantern slide is made it appears on the 
latter as a white scale on a black space. It is far more impressive 
in teaching the relative sizes of objects than any verbal state- 
ments of the rate of enlargement. 

As to the photographing itself, i. e., the exposing, developing, 
etc., it does not differ from any other photographic work, but of 
course each one will probably have some preference for a certain 
make of dry-plates or a certain developer. For a good negative, 
with full delicate detail, I use only the "Hammer" plates. The 
Hammer Transparency Plates are best adapted. 

This work is instructive, and I hope some of the alumni of the 
various colleges of pharmacy will become interested in it, and let 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



73 



the colleges benefit by contributing lantern slides to the collec- 
tions of their alma mater. 

Some authors place much stress on drawing the objects ex- 
amined. To me it always appeared to be a waste of time, but if 
drawings are wanted they may be made with the camera lucida, 
but preferably by arranging the microscope as shown in Fig. 11, 
and then projecting the image downwards on a piece of paper by 
means of a plane mirror or a rectangular reflecting prism. If 
the work is done at night no box is needed, a book or sheet of 
pasteboard between the paper and the lamp or source of light 
being sufficient. This is the easiest method of making a drawing. 




Fig. 11. 



A little more difficult and at the same time expensive method, 
is to rule a piece of paper lightly with lead pencil into sixty-four 
squares, by drawing nine parallel lines each way at right angles 
to each other at equal distances apart, and then drawing a circle 
with one arm of the divider or compass at the point of crossing 
of lines in the center, and the circumference of the circle touch- 
ing the four sides so that the entire circle is contained in the 
square. An optician can furnish an eye-piece to the microscope, 
with a glass disc ruled in the same manner, so that the field of 
the microscope, as determined by the diaphragm of the eye-piece, 
is divided exactly as the circle on the paper. The drawing may 
then be made by copying the image in the field of the microscope 



74 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

off-hand. Still, but few who use the microscope are expert at 
making drawings, and except as memoranda or notes, these draw- 
ings have little value and photographs are preferable. 

Further details of the work necessary for a proper use of the 
microscope should be obtained by every student in a college of 
pharmacy, by taking the instruction in the microscopical labora- 
tories, and by those who are not students at colleges of pharmacy 
by studying some of the special works on microscopical technol- 
ogy. But for the purpose of following these lessons on phar- 
macognosy, the foregoing essentials may suffice. 

VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY 

It is not our object to enter on any "lengthy consideration of the 
minute structures of plants from the standpoint of the botanist 
or the biologist but only from the standpoint of the pharmacog- 
nosist or druggist, and this chapter will treat therefore mainly 
of the elementary facts of vegetable histology. It is presumed 
that the student is familiar with general structural botany, as it 
is explained in Gray's Lessons in Botany; or if he is not, he 
should read that book carefully before proceeding with a study 
of these notes. If he has studied that little work he will have 
learned that notwithstanding the multiplicity of plants and the 
apparently infinite variety of forms, the structure is yet very 
simple when compared with the complex organisms of the animal 
kingdom. In the .flowering plants, for instance, there are but 
three different parts, root, stem and leaf, which are metamor- 
phosed or modified to answer all the varied requirements de- 
manded of them by the growing plant, and all organs not at first 
sight recognizable as one of these three parts, may be shown to 
be such by a careful examination of the structure and. function. 
As we recognize the same limb in the pectoral fin of the fish, the 
wing of a bird or bat, the paddle of the whale, the foreleg of a 
quadruped and the arms of apes and man, so we see the stem 
in branch or tendril, rhizome, tuber or bulb, or even in the pulpy 
mass of the fig or strawberry. 

But while the external appearance of the organs of a plant 
may be very diversified, undergoing various modifications for 
many different purposes, we find little difference in the minute 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 75 

structure. The student will therefore have comparatively little 
difficulty in understanding this subject, especially as in pharma- 
cognosy we have little or nothing to do with the living processes 
in the plant cells or with the phenomena to be observed in living 
protoplasm, but only with "formed" materials, cell walls, crys- 
tals, starches, oils, resin, etc. 

If we examine a small portion of any part of a plant under the 
microscope we will find it to be made up of small structures 
which are called cells. In the lower orders of plants, the Algce, etc., 
we may find plants consisting of single cells, or of rows of cells 
of the thickness of only one cell, and in some of these we can 
study the phenomena of plant life and cell-structure to good 
advantage. But we can also study the plant-cells as we find 
them in the higher plants, and especially in the more succulent 
or growing parts of the stem, leaf or root, or in the pulpy por- 
tion of fruits, such as apples, cranberry, strawberry, etc. 




Fig. 12. 

The cell (Fig. 12) consists of a cell wall composed of cellulose, 
enveloping a substance which is called protoplasm, and within this 
is a small body termed a nucleus, within which in turn may be 
one or more smaller bodies called nucleolus (sing.) or nucleoli 
(PU. 

The cell wall may be absent in some of the lowest forms of 
vegetable life, when the cells are called naked or free protoplasm, 
etc., as in the amoeba, and some young algae; or the nucleus is 
not seen, although this is often due to the fact that protoplasm 
and nucleus are of the same density and transparency, in which 
case the nucleus can, however, be demonstrated by staining it by 
soaking the preparation in some staining solution, as in a solution 
of hematoxylin or in a solution of carmine in water made slightly 
alkaline by the addition of ammonia and afterwards washing in a 
weak solution of acetic acid. Still, this is not necessary to be 



76 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

done in the study of pharmacognosy. The figure shows the es- 
sential structure of a cell, in the primordial cell of Stephano- 
splmra pliwialis, after Sachs, and as the cell is single, not 
pressed upon by other cells, it is round, which may be said to be 
the normal and typical shape of a cell. 

Many druggists have an aquarium in which a small plant with 
long grass-like blades is cultivated. This plant is the Vallisneria 
spiralis and it offers an opportunity of examining the cells which 
should not be neglected. Take out a large leaf, those turning 
slightly yellow being best for the purpose. With a sharp knife 
or razor cut it into thin longitudinal sections and place one of 
these on a slide under a cover glass and keep moist with water, 
taking care that the water does not wet the upper surface of the 
cover glass. Examine with an objective of comparatively high 
power, say a 4 mm. or 3 mm. objective. As there are many cells 
pressing each other, the cells are compressed and will appear in 
such a section to be quadrangular. The protoplasm flows around 
the interior of the cell in a steady current, carrying with it the 
green chlorophyll bodies and the large transparent colorless nu- 
cleus, which is, however, readily seen because its refractive power 
differs from that of the protoplasm and the cell fluids ; the cell 
walls are also plainly seen. 

In ordinary language we often speak of the vegetable cell 
when we really mean the empty cell wall, as in the microscopical 
preparations from which we have removed the cell contents as 
already explained, but we should not forget that this use of the 
word "cell" in describing the structure of a drug is conventional 
and not scientifically correct. The cell wall is formed from and by 
the protoplasm, and once formed is not reabsorbed. It is alive 
only in the sense in which hair or fingernails are' alive ; it is called 
"formed" material, and once formed remains even after all life 
has ceased in the cell and the protoplasm has all been absorbed 
from the cell. 

The size of vegetable cells is extremely variable, for while 
the average cell is stated by Carpenter to be about 0.085 milli- 
meter (%oo inch) in diameter, there are cells fully 0.85 millimeter 
(Y 30 inch) in size and others less than 0.0085 millimeter 
(%ooo inch) in diameter. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



77 



As already stated, the typical shape of a single cell is round, 
bnt it may also occasionally be oval {a and l> in Fig. 13). "When 
cells are joined together, mutual pressure at the points of contact 
is apt to modify the shape, as in the long thread-like filaments of 
many algae, when the cells become cylindrical, as in c; and this 
shape is also found in the soft interiors of many plants in which 
the aggregations of cells is not a mere thread, as in the soft parts 
of sarsaparilla. If only a few cells are joined to form a vege- 
table hair, the individual cell may assume the conical shape 
shown in d. 

But in the interior parts of plants it is more common that the 




Fig. 13. 



cells are compressed from all directions, and the shape becomes 
more or less regularly twelve-sided, as in f, which in section will 
appear as six-sided ; and if the growth is more rapid in one direc- 
tion than in others the cells will be elongated in that direction as 
in g and h, but they will still appear six-sided on section. 

Occasionally the cells niay be more or less prismatic in shape, 
as in i, j, or A 1 , but this is not common. All such cells abutting 
on each other with broad surfaces are parenchymatous cells; 
they are usually not much longer than they are broad, and are 
usually soft-walled, and therefore they do not give much strength 
to the plant. 

An important modification of the shape of cells is that figured 



78 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

at e, where the cell is shown as elongated and pointed at 
the ends, the fusiform or spindle-shaped cell; in the tissues. of 
the plant the ends of these cells interlace and as they are usually 
hardened, or lignified (woody), they give strength to plants. 
The wood of our trees, for example, is made up of such fusiform 
cells which often are ten or even a hundred times as long as they 
are broad, and these cells are called prosenchymatous cells. 

When the cell is young it is completely filled with protoplasm, 
a portion of which is differentiated from the remainder so as to 
form the nucleus. The cell wall may be scarcely more than a 
delicate layer on the outside of the cell in its earlier stages, but 




Fig. 14 

this soon becomes surrounded with a denser wall of cellulose. 
When a cell of this kind is subjected to the action of any medium 
capable of attracting water from the protoplasm the latter will 
shrink away from the cell-wall and will then appear 'to be sur- 
rounded by a delicate membrane which is called the " primordial 
utricle;" but this membrane is possibly only a product of the 
chemical action of the medium on the protoplasm, and is probably 
no more a membrane than is seen when we carefully open an egg 
into boiling water, when the white of egg on the outside at once 
coagulates and appears to be a white membrane around the still 
transparent albumen within. 

This contraction of the protoplasm by the action of reagents, 
such as glycerin, alcohol, etc., is seen in Fig. 14, which repre- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 79 

sents cells from rhubarb root, taken from the soft mass left after 
making an infusion and then placing in alcohol ; two of the cells* 
are shown empty; the others show contracted protoplasm. 

The angular mass represents the stellate crystals of oxalate 
of lime which are plentiful in rhubarb root. 

As the cell grows older and larger, spaces occur in the pro- 
toplasm which are filled with a watery fluid ; such spaces are called 
vacuoles, and the fluid which they contain is called the cell-sap, 
which increases in volume until the protoplasm occupies but a 
small part of the cell contiguous to the cell wall and finally dis- 
appears altogether. The cell then ceases to take active part in 
the life of the plant and serves mechanically by osmosis through 
its cell Avails, or by capillary attraction, to carry moisture from 
the rootlets to the growing and living cells of the plant. At last 
this too may cease and the dry cell, empty or filled with mineral 
or other deposits, as in the inner or heartwood of trees, serves 
only as mechanical support to the living tissues. 

From the protoplasm may be elaborated various organic sub- 
stances which are of importance in the economy of the plant; 
and the moisture taken from the soil holds in solution more or 
less inorganic material which is carried up into the tissues of the 
plant, where it is finally deposited without, however, necessarily 
taking part in the life processes of the plant. 

As evaporation of moisture from the plant takes place mainly 
from the leaves it is here that much of this inorganic material is 
deposited, and upon burning different parts of plants and weigh- 
ing the residue it is found that leaves leave the largest percentage 
of ash. 

In the tissues of the plant inorganic substances are deposited 
in various forms, often in combination with organic acids con- 
stituting some of the proximate principles of the plant; sometimes 
they are deposited in the cell walls, in the form of small crystals, 
or the whole cell wall may be so loaded with inorganic material 
that it will retain its shape even when the organic materials have 
been destroyed, as in diatoms, or in the epidermis of Equisetum, 
in which silica is deposited. 

Or lime salts are deposited in the interior of the cell, in the 
protoplasm; either in single crystals, as in the epidermal cells of 
onion peel, or in bundles of long slender crystals, as in the stem 



80 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



of lilies or of fuchsia, or in skunk-cabbage, when they are called 
raphides, a Latin word meaning needles; or the crystals may be 
in stellate aggregations, as in the oxalate of lime crystals in rhu- 
barb, shown in the last illustration (Fig. 14), which are generally 
spoken of as " rosette ' ' crystals. 

Protoplasm is an indispensable part of the cell-contents of 
every living cell, but it is of little interest to the student of phar- 
macognosy, who is mainly concerned with those substances which 
have definite form when seen under the microscope. Of the al- 
most innumerable organic substances that are found in plants 
starch is of most interest in the study of drugs, because its va- 
rious forms may help to distinguish one drug from another, al- 




though in examining powdered drugs it may occasionally be 
necessary to apply chemical tests to determine some of the form- 
less constituents of the cells. 

Starch is found in most plants and consists of more or less 
regular grains with a structure that is often characteristic of the 
plant or drug. Typical grains of starch may be obtained for 
study by slicing a potato and pressing the cut surface against a 
glass slide, placing a drop of water on this and covering with a 
thin cover glass and examining with a high power objective. In 
Fig. 15 we see several large grains of potato starch, the 
oval form being most common, although quite a number are ir- 
regular from mutual compression in the cells, and a few are com- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 81 

pound by the adhesion of two or more. By making a section of 
the potato at right angles to the surface and mounting in water 
or glycerin the extent to which starch grains are crowded in the 
cells may be seen. In potato starch the size varies considerably, 
large, intermediate and small grains being plentifully found; in 
wheat starch there are large numbers of large round grains and 
of quite small grains and few of intermediate size ; while in corn 
starch nearly all grains are of uniform size. 

Most kinds of starch show peculiar layers or concentric mark- 
ings around a dot or "nilum," which is generally excentric. If 
examined with the polariscope, starch is seen to polarize light 
with a cross radiating from the hilum, as shown in Fig. 16. 

Starch is to the plant what fat is to an animal — surplus food 
material stored up for future use. 

If, in examining a drug, we are in doubt about the nature of 
any grains we see, we may test for starch by soaking the sub- 




Fig. 16. 

stance under examination in watery solution containing free 
iodine, as for instance, a few drops of tincture of iodine in water, 
to which a grain or two of iodide of potassium may be added; 
this will stain the starch grains blue. 

In some plants, especially Compositae, no starch is found, and 
the food material is not deposited in solid form but remains in 
solution. This substance is inulin, but it is of little interest to 
the pharmacognosist. If a drug containing inulin is soaked for 
some days in alcohol the inulin is precipitated and becomes ag- 
gregated in spherical masses of an apparently radiating crystal- 
line structure, forming ' ' sphaero-crystals ; " these sometimes oc- 
cupy several adjacent cells; the cell walls apparently not inter- 
fering Avith their arrangement. Iodine stains inulin yellowish- 



82 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

brown by the mechanical deposit of iodine in the fissures of the 
sphaero-crystals, and not by any real staining effect. 

Aleurone grains are found exclusively in seeds, especially oily 
ones. They are food reserve in the form of rounded or oval 
grains resembling starch grains, but are not colored blue by 
iodine. They appear to be homogeneous until they are cleared 
by soaking in glycerin, when they are seen to contain a crystalloid 
or globoid body in the interior. Aleurone grains consist of albu- 
minoid or protein substances, the crystalloids of calcium oxalate 
and the globoids of calcium and magnesium phosphate. Aleurone 
is generally soluble in water, and sections intended to show 
these grains must be examined in glycerin. Aleurone is of little 
importance to the pharmacognosist, although when peas or beans 
are added as adulterations to powdered drugs, the presence of 
aleurone grains may establish the fact of adulteration. 

Other protein grains, etc., are sometimes produced by pre- 
cipitating the protein substances that are held in solution in the 
protoplasm and cell-sap; they do not naturally assume regular 
forms recognizable under the microscope, and while they are of 
interest to the student of vegetable histology and physiology, 
they are of little or no interest to the pharmacognosist. The 
same is true of most other organic compounds, as" sugars, tannin, 
extractives, alkaloids, glucosides, etc. 

Fixed oils are often visible in the form of highly refractive 
drops or globules. Resin masses, which are often deposited in 
special ducts or cells, may be identified by soaking the section 
in tincture of alkanna diluted with water, when the resin be- 
comes colored brilliantly red; or by soaking in a watery solu- 
tion of acetate of copper, when it becomes emerald green, but 
the staining in the latter solution requires several days. 

The simplest and primary cell wall is cellulose. As we see 
the cell Avails in a section of a drug, the partition between any 
two cells is composed of the cell walls of the two cells united by 
an interposed cell cement, and under low powers and without 
differential staining it looks like one cell wall. Ordinarily we 
speak of the empty cells consisting merely of sections of cell 
walls, as in sections from which the cell-contents have been re- 
moved by the treatment spoken of when telling about the making 
of sections, as "cells," and a pharmacognosist is not much in- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



83 



terested in any other cells; so that pharmacognosy is mainly 
concerned with the empty cell walls. 

Parenchymatous cells usually have cellulose walls. As plants 
grow older various changes occur in the cell walls; for instance, 
the thin epidermal cells of leaves change by a development of 
cuticle, a peculiar layer of cells the outer part of which is thick- 
ened and impervious to water; still later, on the branches and 
roots this cuticle becomes replaced by suber or cork, a more or 
less thick deposit of a different kind of cell, which is even more 
impermeable to water than the cuticle. 

Prosenchymatous cells often become lignified — that is, the cell 
wall is changed to lignin, a hard and tough material forming 
wood. The wood of plants is composed of this modification of 




Fig. 17. 



cell wall, and it serves for mechanical support of the plant. 

A similar modification of the cell wall is that by deposition of 
sclerogen (lignin?) within the original cellulose wall. This sub- 
stance is deposited in layers, one within another, until the cell is 
often nearly filled with this material. But there are little pores 
which remain open, making communication from one cell to an- 
other by osmosis through the cellulose wall possible (Fig. 17). 
In the illustration we see sclerenchymatous cells from the carpel 
of star anise, all but one having these small pores filled with 
Canada balsam, so that they cannot be seen, while in one they 
are filled with air, which renders them plainly perceptible. The 
stones of fruits and the gritty particles in pears furnish inter- 
esting cells of this kind, but when they are found scattered 
among parenchymatous cells, as when they occur in the middle 
part of a bark, or scattered in the fleshy part of the pear, they 



84 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



are called "stone cells." Such cells are usually nearly round, 
while the sclerenchymatous cells which are found in the bast 
portion of the bark are also prosenchymatous or spindle-shaped. 
The stony shells of nuts furnish fine examples of stone cells. 

In Fig.- 18 we see a transverse section of the bast cells of 
cinchona bark, showing plainly how the small canals that run 
through the layers of sclerogen communicate with those in an 
adjacent cell. If we look down on the end of one of these 
small canals it will appear as a dot, and when the deposit is very 
thin the cell will look as if it was dotted, and it is then called a 
"dotted cell;" of this, beautiful examples can be found in Areca 
nut. Dotted cells may, however, be of lignin as well. 




Fig. 1 



Fig. 20. 



Sclerenchymatous cells polarize light, and a cross section of 
such a cell will shoAv a polarization cross, as shown in this illus- 
tration of three cinchona bast cells under the polariscope'(Fig. 19). 

The distribution of sclerenchymatous cells among the other 
cells of a plant or drug often gives such a characteristic appear- 
ance, that it becomes a valuable feature for the recognition of 
the drug. We have already learned that the words "paren- 
chyma" and "prosenchyma" refer to the shapes of cells; the 
word "sclerenchyma" refers to the peculiar thickening of the 
cell wall, and sclerenchymatous cells may be either parenchy- 
matous or prosenchymatous in shape. 

Under the epidermis of the cotyledons of many seeds, as well 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



85 



as under the epidermis of young twigs, petioles and midribs of 
leaves, etc., we sometimes find a peculiar kind of cells and of 
tissue, which we have not heretofore considered. To support the 
tender epidermis there may be developed from the fundamental 
tissue certain hard-walled cells, as for instance the sclerenchyma- 
tous cells under the epidermis of sarsaparilla root, or the stone 
cells which constitute the outer layer of the middle bark of cin- 
namon, or the sclerenchymatous cells under the epidermis of the 
fruit of cubeb. But in some cases, especially in the positions re- 




ferred to above, the walls of such supporting cells for the epider- 
mis become thickened very much in the angles of the cells and 
but little elsewhere ; these cells are called collenchymatous cells 
and the tissue formed by them constitutes collenchyma or collen- 
chymatous tissue. This kind of cells and tissue is, hoAvever, of 
quite subordinate importance to the pharmacognosist, but may 
sometimes help to some trifling extent in recognizing powdered 
seeds, or powdered leaves from which the petioles, etc., have been 
imperfectly removed in garbling, and their nature is therefore 
briefly referred to here (Fig. 20). 



86 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Peculiar round dots or pores are found in the wood cells of coni- 
fers, which are characteristic of that class of plants, and which 
are shown in the drawing of the wood cells of Pinus sylvestris (Fig. 
21) ; a thickening of the cell wall at first leaves a larger circular 
space, but this gradually becomes narrowed until we see the ap- 
pearance as in a, a section of the cell wall also being shown; at 
1) we see an older formation, the original cellulose cell wall having 
been absorbed, thus allowing direct communication from cell to 
cell. Cells of this kind are called "pitted cells.' ' Each such pit 
polarizes light with a beautiful polarization cross. 




In many plants we find ducts or tracheids, consisting of large 
cylindrical cells joined at their ends, the partition walls after- 
wards being absorbed, thus producing long continuous tubes or 
vessels. Thickening by the deposit of lignin or sclerogen may 
take place in these ducts, as in simple cells, giving rise to varia- 
tions in appearance, which are designated by distinguishing 
names. When the thickening is interrupted by small and circular 
pores, whether in the cell or in a duct, we say these structures 
are dotted; a dotted duct is seen in i, in Fig. 22. In reticulated 
ducts the pores are a little longer in a transverse than in a longi- 
tudinal direction, thus making the cell walls look like the meshes 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



87 



of a net as in a. When these meshes are regularly arranged in 
rows, the appearance may be similar to that of the rounds of a 
ladder; such ducts are called scalariform, of which fine examples 
may be seen in ferns, and such a duct is shown in e. 

This resemblance to a ladder may be a little less evident, as in 
y of Fig. 23 ; but it is still a scalariform duct, but already indicating 
variations which lead to a deposit of sclerogen in spiral bands, 
as in u, which forms the spiral ducts. Other ducts have spirals 
interrupted with circular bands, as in o, while still others have the 
thickening only in circular bands, forming the annular ducts. 
All possible gradations or combinations between these different 




methods of thickening may, however, be found in the same duct. 
These ducts are found in the wood portion of plants. 

Still another form of duct which is of great importance in the 
life-economy of the plant, but of little importance from a phar- 
macognosy point of view, is the sieve duct which is found in the 
bast of plants, and in which the thickening takes place only in 
the partitions between the different cells constituting the duct, 
which partitions are permanent and thickened like dotted ducts 
so as to resemble sieves placed between the cells. 

Latex ducts, or laticiferous ducts or vessels may be formed by 
the coalescence of cells, so that they form anastomosing vessels; 
they contain latex, a peculiar substance containing oil, resin, caout- 



88 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

chouc, gum, etc., with water, in an emulsion, sometimes limpid, 
more frequently milky. 

Laticiferous ducts must not be confounded with lactiferous ducts, 
which occur in the mammary glands of animals, and which convey 
lac or milk. Some writers say "lacticiferous," which is an inex- 
cusable blunder. 

Intercellular spaces, with no walls of their own, but formed 
by the surrounding cells, as flues in chimneys are bounded by 
the bricks, may serve as ducts, sometimes containing air, as in 
many water plants, sometimes latex, oil, etc., as in the oil ducts 
of anise or fennel; when such spaces are nearly spherical they are 
sometimes called glands, although not properly such, as in orange- 
peel, cloves, etc. 

All these different forms of cell and duct formations unite to 
form tissues. A tissue may be described as a union. of many cells 
for the performance of a common function. According to Fluecki- 
ger, the different systems of tissues are: — 

Epidermal System. — In its simplest form merely a thickening 
of the outer wall of the outer cells, as in some thallogens ; in higher 
plants, a layer of cells, forming the epidermis, in and on which we 
find stomata or breathing pores, hairs, glands, etc. On roots and 
stems this epidermis is later on replaced by the formation of cork 
(periderm). The epidermal structures protect the more delicate 
structures within, and also prevent too rapid or excessive evapo- 
ration. 

Mechanical System. — This serves to give mechanical strength 
to the plant. It includes wood cells, bast cells, stone cells, etc. The 
wood or xylem portion of fibro-vascular bundles belongs here. 

Absorbing System. — Structures by which food is obtained from 
the soil, or in parasitic plants from their hosts ; of little importance 
in pharmacognosy. The root hairs belong to this system. 

Assimilating System. — Consists of cells containing chlorophyll, 
therefore in the higher plants mainly the leaves. 

Conducting System. — The fibro-vascular bundles; ducts, sieve- 
ducts, etc. This system permits the passage of food materials, water, 
etc., from one part of a plant to another. 

Storing System. — Receptacles for storing surplus food, such as 
seeds, fruits, rhizomes, bulbs, roots, etc. Strictly speaking, seeds 
fruits, etc., are not "tissues" but "organs." 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 89 

Aerating System. — Stomata and intercellular spaces to effect 
the interchange of gases in the interior of the plant. 

Secretion Storage. — To receive and store the secretions of the 
plant, as oil, resin, mucilage, etc. It includes intercellular spaces, 
cells, latex ducts, glands, etc. 

While a study of these systems of tissues is important from the 
botanical standpoint and even essential to a proper understand- 
ing of physiological botany, it must yet be remembered that the 
pharmacist has no more use for botany as such than has the 
physician, lawyer or preacher, or than has an architect, civil 
engineer or stonemason for geology or mineralogy, and it is only 
in so far as a knowledge of botany is of use in pharmacognosy 
that it is necessary to a pharmacist's education. Pharmacognosy 
deals with the anatomical and chemical facts alone, and it is a 
divergence and misapplication of time to study botany (as the 
tendency seems now to be) from the botanist's standpoint. For 
instance, in studying physiological botany, we should want to 
study chlorophyll grains with reference to their functions as 
assimilating organs, and how they produce starch grains, which 
in turn Ave would study from their first inception in the chloro- 
phyll bodies to the final perfect shapes in the cell. In pharma- 
cognosy Ave only need to know chlorophyll bodies and starch 
grains Avhen Ave see them, and only want to know whether cer- 
tain structures are present or not, and if present, what they look 
like. 

We will therefore study the tissues of the drugs from a purely 
anatomical standpoint and in connection with the parts of plants 
in which they occur, and will next proceed to the consideration 
of the pharmacognosy of A r egetable drugs. 

Adulterations 

Drugs may be debased or tampered with in various ways. We 
meet with adulterations, sophistications, admixtures and substi- 
tutions. 

An adulteration is an addition of foreign substances to any 
article with the intention to defraud. When extract of poppy 
leaA T es is added to opium, or when leaden bullets or shot are in- 
closed in lumps of opium to increase the weight, these are adul- 



90 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

terations. But it is also adulteration when cheaper drugs of simi- 
lar appearance or inferior or spoiled drugs of the same kind are 
added with intent to defraud. 

Sophistication is an addition of a spurious article closely re- 
sembling the true, as paraffin to white wax. A sophistication is, 
therefore, always an adulteration; but as an adulteration is not 
necessarily an imitation of the genuine, an adulteration is not 
necessarily a sophistication. 

Adulterations and sophistications always imply intentional fraud, 
and the nature of the adulterant is usually such that its use 
cannot exert any immediately injurious effects, however delete- 
rious the ultimate effects may be, for no one is depraved or fool- 
ish enough to risk an immediately fatal effect for the sake of 
pecuniary gain. 

An admixture is the addition of one drug to another, and may be 
intentional, when it constitutes an adulteration; but the term is 
usually restricted to those cases when the admixture is due to ac- 
cident or ignorance, and with no intenton to defraud; the circum- 
stances of the case generally show whether the admixture is due to 
one or the other of these causes, as when the added article is more 
expensive than the drug, or when it is dangerous to health or life, 
when it is evidently unintentional and not in any sense an adul- 
teration. 

A substitution is when an entirely different substance is sold 
instead of the one asked for. Such substitution may, of course, 
be intentional, and, therefore, for fraudulent purposes, as when 
ceresin is sold instead of beeswax, cottonseed oil for olive oil, or 
Mexican sarsaparilla for Eio Negro sarsaparilla; but such frau- 
dulent substitution would not be an adulteration because the lat- 
ter presupposes an intentional cheapening of the genuine article, 
and in cases of substitution none of the genuine article is present 
at all. A substitution may also be unintentional, as when through 
ignorance one drug is sold for another resembling it, or when 
labels are accidentally interchanged, or when the similarity of 
names leads to the sale of a wrong article, as in a case where 
apocynum cannabinum was sold instead of cannabis Indica which 
had been ordered; but the label was ' ' Cannabis Indica. " Here the 
use of the English name ' ' Indian Hemp ' ' for both drugs led to the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 91 

mistake. Substitutions may furthermore result from carelessness, 
as when morphine is dispensed instead of quinine. 

It will therefore be seen that each of these terms — adulteration, 
sophistication, admixture and substitution — has a distinct mean- 
ing, and that they should not be indiscriminately used, one for an- 
other. The first two terms always imply fraud; the other two 
sometimes imply fraud, but frequently imply ignorance or careless- 
ness. Adulterations and sophistications, therefore, seldom directly 
lead to dangerous results, while admixtures and especially substi- 
tutions, frequently give rise to serious or even fatal accidents. 

Formerly much attention was given to a study of adulterants, 
these being described with the same minuteness as the drugs them- 
selves, but now we generally restrict our study to the drugs, count- 
ing all that does not answer the description of the drug under con- 
sideration to be foreign substance, and therefore one of the above 
forms of debasement. Adulterations that are of common occurrence 
or of characteristic nature will be described in these notes. We 
proceed now to the consideration of the pharmacognosy of the in- 
dividual vegetable drugs. 

GROUP IX 

Herbs — Whole Plants Botanically Eecognizable 
While herbs or flowering tops are usually sufficiently complete 
to be recognized by their botanical characteristics, yet as a matter 
of fact works like Maisch's Organic Materia Medica do not clas- 
sify them systematically as fresh plants are classified, for instance, 
in Gray's Manual. 

Moreover, by looking over the group list, it will be seen that 
there are comparatively few whole floAvering plants used as 
drugs, and even these are of subordinate importance, so that to 
study taxonomy for the sake of recognizing these few, reminds 
one of the mountain heaving in labor to produce a mouse. 

A large number of herbs and other "botanical drugs" are 
sold in compressed packages, and the retailer sells these as la- 
beled and without opening the packages to determine the identity 
of the drugs, which, moreover, are often cut up before compres- 
sion so as to be unrecognizable by their botanical features, when, 
of course, other characteristics, such as odor or taste, must be 



92 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

relied on for identification. In any case, however, these drugs 
must be softened by dipping in hot water, or by holding in the 
steam escaping from a tea kettle, so that they may be properly 
handled for examination. The flowers of most of these plants are 
very minute and must be examined with a lens. In the following 
drawings in this group most of them are represented much en- 
larged. 

In pharmacognosy, while it is theoretically assumed that herbs 
are classified botanically, yet the books give such other methods 
of identifying these drugs as to make a knowledge of taxonomy 
practically superfluous, as will be appreciated by reference to 
this group in Maisch. It is true that at present, in some quarters, 
pharmacognosy is taught by botanists as if botany were the im- 
portant study, and pharmacognosy but an incident to it, while 
in reality botany is and should be but a subordinate incident to 
the study of pharmacognosy. 

As a matter ,of fact, the best and easiest way to learn to recog- 
nize the drugs of this group is to get a sample of each drug and 
become familiar with its appearance, taste and odor, and in this 
way the same result may be reached in a few days that would 
require a year or two of practice in recognizing plants botani- 
cally, especially as many of the drugs of this group are not always 
in a condition for botanical determination, while the other char- 
acteristics are always present. 

The following is an enumeration of the more important drugs 
of this class, arranged alphabetically according to the orders to 
which they belong, although no great stress is intended to be 
placed on the orders or families. 

COMPOSITE. 

Leaves and tops Absinthium. 

Leaves and flowering tops Achillea. 

Flowering tops Eupatorium. 

Leaves and flowering tops Grindelia. 

Leaves and flowering tops Solidago. 

Leaves and tops Tanacetum. 

GENTIANACE^E. 

Entire plant Chirata. 

LABIATE. 

Leaves and tops Cataria. 

Leaves and tops Hedeoma. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 93 

Leaves and tops Lycopus. 

Leaves and tops Majorana. 

Leaves and tops Marrubium. 

Leaves and tops Melissa. 

Leaves and tops Mentha piperita. 

Leaves and tops Mentha viridis. 

Leaves and tops Monarda. 

Herb Scutellaria. 

LEGUMINOS^E. 

Tops Scoparius. 

LOiBELIACILE. 

Leaves and tops Lobelia. 

PAPAVERACELE. 

Entire plant Chelidonium. 

RANUNCULACE^S. 

Entire plant Coptis. 

Herb Pulsatilla. 

SOLANACEJE. 

Leaves and flowering tops Hyoscyamus. 

URTICACE.E. 

Flowering tops of female plant Cannabis Indica 




Fig. 24. 



It must be remembered that drugs which should consist of 
only leaves, as belladonna, aconite, eucalyptus or chimaphila 
leaves, or only of flowers, as matricaria, etc., often come into the 
trade in the shape of twigs or tops and may then also appear to 
belong to this group. Such drugs are described under the 
proper groups to which they belong. 

Composite. — Flowers in a close head, on a common receptacle, 



94 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



surrounded with an involucre, with five (rarely four) stamens 
inserted on the corolla, their anthers united in a tube (syngene- 
sious). (Fig. 24.) 

Yellowish florets; leaves petiolate, pinnatifid Absinthium. 

White florets; leaves thrice pinnatifid Achillea. 

White florets; leaves connate-perfoliate Eupatorium. 

Yellow ray florets; leaves sessile, spatulate to lanceolate .. Grindelia. 

Yellow florets; leaves linear-lanceolate Solidago. 

Yellow tubular florets ; leaves alternate, pinnatifid Tanacetum, 

Absinthium 

N. Wormwood. — 0. Leaves and tops of Artemisia Absinthium; 
Compositor. — H. Northern temperate zone ; cultivated. — D. Leaves 
about five em. long, hoary, silky pubescent, petiolate, roundish- 




Fig. 25. 

triangular in outline ; pinnately two or three cleft with lanceolate 
segments, the terminal one spatulate; bracts three cleft or entire; 
heads numerous, about three mm. long, subglobose; numerous 
small, pale yellow florets, all tubular and without pappus; odor 
aromatic; taste persistently bitter. — C. Volatile oil, bitter gluco- 
side, absinthin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic and stimulant. Dose: 1 to 5 
grams in infusion, tincture or fluid extract. 



Achillea 

N. Yarrow, Milfoil. — 0. Flowering tops and leaves of Achillea 
Millefolium; Compositor. — H. Northern temperate zone. — D. Leaves 
from five to twenty-five cm. long, three pinnatifid, the divisions 
linear, three to five cleft, crowded; corymb compound, flat-topped; 
involucre oblong with imbricate scales; rays four to five, short, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



95 



white (sometimes rose-color) ; disc-florets greenish-white, perfect; 
achenes flat and without pappus ; odor aromatic, reminding some- 
what of chamomile ; taste bitter. Should be free from coarse 
stems. — C. Volatile oil and a peculiar principle, achillein, etc. — 




U. Aromatic, stomachic, bitter tonic; similar to chamomile. Also 
supposed to act as an emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, in in- 
fusion or fluid extract. 

Eupatorium 

N. Boneset, Thoroughwort, — 0. Flowering tops and leaves of 
Eupatorium perfoliatum; Composite. — H. North America. — D. 
Stem hairy ; leaves lanceolate, united at the base around the stem 
(connate-perfoliate), tapering to a slender point, serrate, very 
veiny, wrinkled, downy beneath, ten to twenty cm. long; flower- 




Fig. 27. 



heads with ten to thirty white florets; corymbs compound and 
large; scales of involucre linear-lanceolate. — C. A bitter extract- 
ive, a glucoside eupatorin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic, useful in inter- 
mittent fever, dyspepsia, general debility, etc. — The warm in- 



96 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



fusion is an excellent emetic and diaphoretic, 
best given in infusion or fluid extract. 



Dose: 1 to 5 grams, 



Grindelia 

N. Grindelia. — 0. Leaves and flowering tops of Grindelia robusta 
[Grindelia camporum, or Grindelia cuneifolia), and G. sqaarrosa; 
Composite. — H. G. rob. west of the Eocky Mountains; G. squarr. 
from the Mississippi westward to the coast. — D. Leaves about five 
cm. or less long, varying from broadly spatulate or oblong to 
lanceolate, sessile or clasping, obtuse, more or less sharply serrate, 




Fig. 28. 

often spinosely toothed, or even laciniate-pinnatind, pale green, 
smooth,, finely dotted, thickish, brittle, most of them broken off 
from the stems and loose in the packages; there should not be 
more than 10 per cent by weight of stems or foreign matter; 
heads many-flowered, subglobular or somewhat conical; the in- 
volucre hemispherical, about ten mm. broad, composed of numer- 
ous imbricated spreading scales ; ray florets yellow, ligulate, pis- 
tillate; disc-florets yellow, tubular, perfect; pappus 1 consisting 
of two or three awns of the length of the disc-florets; odor, bal- 
samic ; taste pungently aromatic and bitter. 

In the cut, representing G. rob., a shows a dry flower-head, as in 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



97 



trade ; b, same soaked in water ; c, section of receptacle ; d, disc- 
floret, enlarged ; e, ray-floret ; f, stigma, enlarged ; g, fruit, enlarged ; 
G. squarr., resembles G. rob., but is smaller and the ray-florets are 
sometimes wanting. The name ' ' squarrosa ' ' refers to the recurved 
points of the scales covering the flowerheads, but this peculiarity 
is present in both varieties. — C. Resin and volatile oil. — U. Em- 
ployed in various affections of the organs of respiration, asthma, 
pertussis, bronchitis, etc.; it also is said to be diuretic and useful 
in catarrh of the bladder. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in fluid extract. 

Solidago 

N. Golden Rod. — 0. Leaves and flowering tops of Solidago odor a; 
Compositcc. — H. North America. — D. Leaves three to five cm. long, 
entire, sessile, smooth, lanceolate, acute, pellucid-punctate; flow- 
erheads numerous, small, in one-sided curved racemes; florets 
yellow, with bristly pappus; odor and taste aromatic, sweet, re- 




Fig. 29. 



minding of anise. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Slightly stimulant and car- 
minative ; copious draughts of warm infusion produce diaphoresis, 
mainly on account of the warm water taken. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, 
best given in the form of infusion. 



Tanacetum 

N. Tansy. — 0. Leaves and tops of Tanacetum vulgare; Compo- 
sitce. Several pharmacopoeias prescribed the use of the flowers 
only. — H. Northern hemisphere ; cultivated.— D. Leaves about fif- 
ten cm. long ; bipinnatifid, the segments oblong, obtuse, serrate or 
incised, smooth, dark-green and glandular; flowerheads corymbose, 



98 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



with an imbricated involucre, a convex, naked receptacle and 
numerous yellow tubular florets; odor, strong, camphoraceous ; 
taste, acrid, bitter. — C. Volatile oil and a bitter principle tanace- 
tin. — U. Emmenagogue, to restore suppressed menstruation, and 
sometimes for the purpose of procuring abortion. It is seldom, 
if ever, successful in producing the latter effect, unless the dose is 
so large that it produces fatal intestinal inflammations. It also 




Fig. 30. 



possesses anthelmintic properties. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best as 
fluid extract or infusion; of the oil, one to three drops. 

Gentianace^e. — Smooth herbs, with a colorless bitter juice; op- 
posite, sessile, entire and simple leaves without stipules; solitary or 
cymose flowers, regular; calyx persistent; corolla mostly withering- 
persistent; lobes of corolla convolute in bud; stamens as many as 




Fig. 31. 



the lobes of the corolla and inserted on its tube: one-celled ovary 
with two parietal placental or nearly the whole inner face of the 
ovary ovuliferous; the fruit usually a two-valved septicidal 
and many -seeded capsule; seed anatropous with a minute embryo 
in fleshy albumen. . 



Two nectaries on each petal, 



Chirata. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Chirata 



99 



N. Chirata, Chiretta.— 0. The entire plant, Swertia Chirata; 
Gentianacece. — H. East India. — D. Chirata comes in bundles about 
seventy-five cm. in length, of the shape shown in Fig. 32. The root 
is nearly simple, about seven cm. long ; stem branched, nearly one 
meter long, slightly quadrangular above, containing a narrow 




Fig. 32. 

wood circle and a large yellowish pith ; leaves opposite, sessile, 
ovate, entire, five-nerved ; flowers, numerous, small, with f our- 
lobed calyx and corolla ; with two nectaries on each petal. The 
whole plant smooth, pale brown, inodorous and intensely bitter. — 
C. Ophelic acid, a peculiar bitter principle, chiratin, etc. — 
U. Bitter tonic and febrifuge. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best given in 
the form of infusion or fluid extract. 

Chirata should be freed from the coarser woody stems, which 
contain little of the bitter constituents. 




Fig. 33. 

Labiate. — Chiefly herbs, with square stems; opposite aromatic 
leaves, mostly dotted with small glands which contain a volatile oil 
upon which depends the warmth and aroma of these plants; flowers 
axillary, chiefly in cymose clusters, these often aggregated in ter- 
minal spikes or racemes; more or less two-lipped corolla, upper lip of 
corolla two-lobed or sometimes entire, lower lip three-lobed; stamens 
inserted on tube of corolla, didynamous or diandrous ; ovary deeply 
four-lobed, forming in fruit four little seed-like nuts or achenes, 



100 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



surrounding the base of the single style in the bottom of the per- 
sistent calyx and each filled with a single erect seed. 




Fig. 34. 

Upper lip arched; stamens 4 Cataria. 

Corolla small, 2-lipped; stamens 2 .Hedeoma. 

Flowers in axillary whorls; stamens 2 Lycopus. 

Flowers in corymbose clusters; stamens 4 Majorana. 

Flowers in dense, woolly, axillary whorls; stamens 4 Marrubium. 

Flowers in small cymes; stamens 4 .Melissa. 

Flowers in obtuse spikes; stamens 4, short Mentha ppt. 

Flowers in slender spikes; stamens 2 Mentha virid. 

Corolla long, with narrow lip; stamens 2 -._... Monarda. 

Flowers in axillary 1-sided racemes; stamens 4 Scutellaria. 



Cataria 

N. Catnep, Catnip. — 0. Leaves and tops of Nepeta Cataria; La- 
biatce. — H. Northern hemisphere. — D. Stem branched, downy gray; 




Fig. 35. 



with petiolate, heart-shaped, oblong, deeply crenate leaves, with 
the under side whitish-downy. Cymose axillary clusters, dense and 
many-flowered, forming interrupted spikes or racemes; flowers 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 101 

with whitish corolla, with four stamens ascending under the upper 
lip, the two lower stamens being shorter. Odor mint-like, taste 
bitterish and aromatic. — C. Volatile oil, bitter extractive, etc. — 
U. Stimulant and tonic; stomachic; but most frequently used as a 
remedy for flatulent colic of infants. Dose. 2 to 5 grams in in- 
fusion or fluid extract. 

Hedeoma 

N. American Pennyroyal. — 0. Leaves and tops of Hedeoma Pul- 
egioides; Labiatce. — H. North America. — D. Branching, hairy, 
roundish-quadrangular stem; leaves opposite, short petioled, ob- 
long-ovate, somewhat serrate, about twelve mm. long; flowers in 
small axillary cymules, with a tubular bilabiate five-toothed calyx, 




Fig. 36. 

and a pale blue, spotted, bilabiate corolla, containing tAvo fertile 
and two sterile stamens. Odor strong and mint-like ; taste pun- 
gent, aromatic. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Stimulant, carminative and 
emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion. 

The fresh herb hung in rooms is much used to drive away 
mosquitos, and a spirit made by dissolving the oil in alcohol is 
used for the same purpose. 

Lycopus 

N. Bugle, Bugleweed. — 0. Tops of Lycopus Virginicus; La- 
biatce. — H. North America. — D. Stem obtusely quadrangular, 
with slender runners; leaves about five cm. long, short-petioled, 
elliptic-lanceolate, toothed above, smooth; flowers in axillary clus- 
ters, small; calyx bluntly four-toothed; corolla purplish and four- 



102 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

lobed ; the right hand figure shows the mouth of the corolla with 
the stigma and two fertile stamens; the odor resembles that of 
mint; the taste is bitter. — C. A crystallizable glucoside and tan- 
nin. — U. Said to be astringent and sedative, and has been recom- 




Fig. 37. 

mended to reduce the force of the pulse and allay cough, and 
to arrest hemorrhage from the lungs. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, pre- 
ferably in the form of infusion or fluid extract. 

Majorana 

N. Marjoram. — 0. Tops of Origanum Majorana and 0. vulgare; 
Labiatce. — H. Asia Minor and Southern Europe ; cultivated in U. S. 
D. 0. Majorana has the stem branched; leaves about fifteen mm. 
long, sessile, spatulate or obovate, entire, grayish-green and hairy; 
flowers in clusters; calyx two-lipped; corolla whitish, obscurely 




Fig. 38. 

two-lipped; stamens, four, exserted and didynamous; taste pun- 
gent, odor aromatic. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Stimulant, carmina- 
tive and emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion or fluid 
extract. 

0. vulg., a flower of which is figured, is also called Wild Mar- 
joram, or Origanum, while 0. marj. is known as Sweet Marjoram. 
The latter is the better known because it is used by cooks as a con- 
diment. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Marrabium 



103 



N. Hoarhound. — 0. Leaves and flowering tops of Marrubium 
vulgare; LaUatce. — H. Northern hemisphere; cultivated. — D. 
Branches quadrangular; white, densely downy stems; leaves op- 
posite, petiolate, roundish-ovate, about twenty-five mm. long, 




Fig. 39. 

obtuse, coarsely crenate, strongly wrinkled, downy above, white 
hairy beneath, flowers in dense, axillary, woolly whorls; with 
a stiffly ten-toothed calyx, whitish, bilabiate corolla and four 
included stamens; odor aromatic and taste bitter. — C. A bitter 
principle Marrubiin, volatile oil, etc. — U. Bitter tonic and stom- 
achic, in dyspepsia and in atonic conditions of the alimentary 
tract. Dose: 5 to 10 grams in infusion or in fluid extract. 

Melissa 

N. Melissa, Balm. — 0. Leaves and tops of Melissa officinalis; 
Labiates. — H. Asia Minor, Southern Europe ; naturalized in U. 




Fig. 40. 

S. — D. Stem branched, quadrangular, pubescent; leaves about 
five cm. long, petiolate, ovate, obtuse, somewhat hairy and gland- 



104 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



ular, rounded or sub cordate at the base, with margin crenate; 
flowers in about four-flowered cymules ; calyx tubular, bell-shaped, 
five toothed; corolla whitish or purplish, bilabiate; stamens four, 
didynamous ; odor fragrant and aromatic ; taste astringent and 
bitterish. — C. Volatile oil, tannin and a bitter principle. — U. Car- 
minative, diaphoretic and emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in 
infusion. 

Mentha Piperita 

N. Peppermint. — 0. Leaves and flowering tops of Mentha pipe- 
rita; Labiatce. — H. Asia, Europe and North America. — D. Stems 
and branches quadrangular, often purplish ; leaves about five cm. 
long, petiolate, ovate-lanceolate, acute, glandular and nearly 




Fig. 41. 

smooth, with margin sharply serrate ; flowers in terminal conical 
obtuse spikes; calyx tubular, five-toothed, often purplish; corolla 
four-lobed, purplish, stamens four, short, inserted on corolla; 
odor aromatic and taste pungent and cooling. — C. Volatile oil, 
which contains menthol. — U. Carminative and nervine. Dose: 1 to 
5 grams in infusion. 



Mentha Viridis 

N. Spearmint. — 0. Leaves and tops of Mentha viridis; Labiatce. — ■ 
H. Europe and North America. — D. Stems and branches quad- 
rangular and usually light-green ; leaves about five cm. long, sub- 
sessile, oblong or ovate-lanceolate, acute, glandular and nearly 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 105 

smooth, with margin unequally serrate; flowers in slender acute 
terminal spikes ; calyx tubular, sharply five-toothed ; corolla f our- 
lobed, light purplish; stamens four, rather long; odor aromatic 




Fig. 42. 

and taste pungent. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Carminative and nervine. 
Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion. 

Monarda 

N. Horsemint. — 0. Leaves and tops of Monarda punctata; Labi- 
atce. — H. United States, New York to Minnesota, south to Florida 
and Texas. — D. Stem nearly simple, minutely downy; leaves about 




Fig. 43. 



five cm. long, petioled, lanceolate, acute, glandular, nearly smooth 
with margin sparsely serrate; flowers in whorls, with sessile, yel- 



106 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



low and purplish bracts ; calyx tubular, downy, five-toothed ; corolla 
two-lipped, yellowish with purplish spots on upper lip ; stamens two : 
odor aromatic and taste pungent and bitterish. — C. Volatile oil. — U. 
Carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in 
infusion. 

Scutellaria 

N. Scullcap, Skullcap. — 0. Leaves and tops of Scutellaria lateri- 
flora; Ldbiatce. — H. North America, west to Alabama and New 
Mexico. — D. Stem and branches quadrangular, smooth; leaves 
about five cm. long, petiolate, ovate-lanceolate or ovate-oblong, 
with margin serrate; flowers in axillary, one-sided racemes; calyx 
two-lipped; corolla two-lipped, pale-blue; stamens four, didy- 






Fig. 44. Fig. 45. 

namous; odor slight and taste bitterish. — C. Bitter principle. — 
U. Tonic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion. 

Leguminos/e. — Plants with papilionaceous or sometimes regular 
flowers; stamens ten (rarely five, and sometimes many), monadel- 
phous, diadelphous, rarely distinct; pistil free, single and simple, 
becoming a legume in fruit; seeds mostly without albumen; leaves 
alternate, with stipules, usually' compound. (Fig. 45.) 
Leaves usually absent, stamens monadelphous Scoparius 

Scoparius 

N. Broom. — 0. Tops of Cytisus Scoparius; Leguminosce. — H. Wes- 
tern Asia, Western and Southern Europe and naturalized in parts 
of America. — D. Stems thin, flexible, pentangular, smooth, tough, 
dark green and usually free of leaves; leaves, if present, small, 
trifoliate, leaflets obovate-oblong and entire ; inflorescence race- 
mose, but flowers often broken off, leaving the stems bare; 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



107 



corolla, yellow; stamens ten, monadelphous, odor peculiar and 
taste disagreeably bitter. — C. Volatile oil, sparteine, scopa- 
rin. — U. Diuretic and hydragogue cathartic, of value for re- 




Fig. 46. 



moval of effusions in chronic dropsies. Dose: 2 to 5 grams in 
fluid extract or infusion. 

Lobeliace/E. — Herbs with acrid milky juice; leaves alternate; 
flowers scattered; corolla irregular, monopetalous, five-lobed; sta- 




Fig. 47. 

mens five, free from the corolla, united into tube commonly by their 
filaments and always by their anthers. 

Leaves alternate; stamens united into a tube Lobelia 



Lobelia 

N. Lobelia, Indian Tobacco. — 0. Leaves and tops of Lobelia in- 
flata collected after a portion of the capsules have become inflated ; 
Lobeliacew. — H. North America. — D. Stem erect, with hairy 
branches terminating in long racemes of pale-blue flowers ; leaves 
about five cm. long, petiolate, ovate or oblong, pubescent, pale 
green, with margin irregularly toothed, gradually diminishing 



108 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



into leaf -like sessile bracts; calyx adherent, five-toothed, becom- 
ing inflated in fruit; corolla split down on upper side, bilabiate, 




Fig. 48. 



the upper lip consisting of two rather erect lobes, the other lip 
spreading and 3-cleft; stamens five, united into a tube; fruit an 




Fig. 49. 



inflated pod, inferior; odor slight, irritating, and taste at first 
mild, afterwards acrid and burning. — C. Lobeline, lobelic acid, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



109 



etc. — U. Sialagogue, expectorant, emetic, narcotic and purgative; 
in large doses powerfully depressant. Valuable in asthma. Dose: 
As an emetic, 0.5 to 1.5 grams, but its use is dangerous; as an ex- 
pectorant in much smaller doses. 

Papaverace^e. — Herbs with milky or colored juice; flowers regu- 
lar, with parts in twos or fours; sepals two (rarely three), fuga- 
cious, falling off when the flower expands; petals four to twelve; 
stamens polyandrous, rarely as few as sixteen, distinct, hypogenous; 
ovary one-celled, with two or more parietal placentas; fruit a dry 
one-celled pod or capsule. (Fig. 49.) 
Flowers in long-peduncled umbels; capsule linear Chelidonium 



Chelidonium 

N. Chelidonium, Celandine. — 0. The entire plant Chelidonium 
majus; Papaveracece. — H. Europe; naturalized in North Amer- 




ica. — D. Root, several-headed, branching, reddish-brown; stem 
about fifty cm. high, hairy, light-green; leaves about fifteen cm. 



110 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



long, thin, petiolate, the upper ones smaller and sessile, obtuse, 
with margin coarsely crenate or incised and the terminal ones 
often three-lobed; flowers in small, long-peduncled umbels; sepals 
two ; petals four, yellow ; capsule linear, one-celled and many- 
seeded; odor, when fresh, disagreeable and taste acrid. — C. The 
fresh plant contains a saffron-colored milk-juice. Chelidonine, 
chelerythrine, chelidonic acid, etc. — U. Diuretic and cathartic. 
Dose: 1 to 5 grams in fluid extract. 

Ranunculace,e. — Herbs, or some woody plants, with a colorless 
and usually acrid juice; flowers regular or irregular, polypetalous 
or apetalous, with the calyx often colored like a corolla, hypogen- 




Fig. 51. 



ous; sepals three to fifteen; petals three to fifteen or iv anting ; sta- 
mens numerous, indefinite, rarely few; pistils many or few, rarely 
single; sepals, petals, stamens and pistils all distinct and uncon- 
nected; fruits, dry pods, achenes or berries. 

Bhizomes thin, filiform, golden-yellow Coptis 

Cluster of leaves forming an involucre some distance below the 

flower .Pulsatilla 



Coptis 

N. Goldthread. — 0. Entire plant Coptis tri folia; Banuncula- 
cece. — H. Northern continents. — D. Rhizome filiform or thread- 
like, bright golden-yellow, with very thin rootlets; leaves radical, 
from a scaly base, petiolate, trifoliate, the leaflets about one to 
two cm. long; obovate-cuneate, obscurely three-lobed, sharply 
toothed; shape slender, naked, one-flowered; calyx petal-like, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



111 



deciduous; petals small; stamens fifteen to twenty-five; pistils, 
three to seven, on slender stalks, maturing into divergent 
membranaceous pods containing from four to eight seeds; in- 
odorous and taste very bitter. The drawing shows a flower with 
sepals and petals removed. — C. Berberine and coptine. — U. Pow- 




erful pure bitter tonic, used as a stomachic and appetizer in dys- 
pepsia, apepsia, want of appetite during convalescence, etc. 
Dose: 2 to 5 grams in fluid extract. 



Pulsatilla 

N. Pulsatilla, Pasque flower. — 0. The herb of Anemone Pulsa- 
tilla (Pasque flower) and of Anemone pratensis; Ranunculacem. — 
H. Europe; Anemone patens, indigenous to "Western North Amer- 
ica, is used for the same purpose. — D. Leaves radical petiolate, 
silky-villous, twice or thrice deeply three-parted or pinnately 
cleft, with linear acute lobes, appearing after the flowers ; flow- 



112 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



ers large, purple, bell-shaped, the flowerstalk having a cluster of 
linear-divided leaves forming an involucre at some distance from 




Fig. 53. 



the flower and often recurved so that the flower hangs down- 
wards; sepals petaloid; petals none; pistils numerous, forming 
achenes terminated by a bearded feathery style. The illustra- 




Fig. 54. 



tion shows the scape and flower of the Pasque flower, Anemone 
Pulsatilla. The herb should be collected soon after flowering, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



113 



carefully preserved, and not kept longer than one year. The 
dried herb is inodorous, but has a very acrid taste. — C. Anemonin 
and anemonic acid, etc. — U. Diuretic, alterative, diaphoretic, ex- 
pectorant; little used. Dose: 0.3 gram. 

Solanace/E. — Herbs (or rarely shrubs) with colorless juice; 
leaves alternate; flowers regular, pentamerous, on bractless pedi- 
cels; stamens five; corolla imbricate or valvate in tlie bud and 
mostly plaited; fruit a two-celled (rarely three to five-celled) 
many-seeded capsule or berry. {Fig. 54.) 

Gray-green hairy leaves, irregularly lobed; flowers, or capsules 

within persistent calyx, often present Hyoscyamus 

Hyoscyamus 

N. Hyoscyamus, Henbane. — 0. Leaves and flowering tops of 
Hyoscyamus niger; SolanacecB. Only leaves and tops of the sec- 
ond year's growth should be collected; formerly only the leaves 
were official, and the twigs, flowers and fruits were rejected. — 




H. Europe and Asia; naturalized in North America. — D. Long 
stems cylindrical, hairy; leaf to twenty-five cm. long, ten cm. 
broad, with prominent midrib, grayish-green, hahy, especially 
on the under side ; ovate or ovate-oblong, acute, sinuate-toothed, 
teeth large, oblong or triangular; flowers nearly sessile; calyx 
urn-shaped, five-toothed, persistent; corolla five-lobed, yellowish 
with purplish veins; occasionally the capsule, inclosed in the per- 
sistent calyx, is present, as shown in the right-hand figure ; odor 
heavy, narcotic, and taste bitter and somewhat acrid. — C. Hyo- 
scyamine, etc. ; the drug should yield not less than 0.065 per cent 



114 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

of mydriatic alkaloids. — U. Anodyne, narcotic and hypnotic; 
used to allay cough, spasm, asthma, etc., and often added to 
purgatives to prevent griping ; used as a hypnotic when opium is 
not well tolerated. Poisonous in large doses. Dose: 0.1 to 1 
gram; average dose about 0.3 gram. 




Fig. 56. 



URTiCACEiE. — Plants with stipules, and monoecious or dioecious, or 
rarely perfect flowers; calyx regular and free; stamens as many as 
the lobes of calyx and opposite them, or sometimes fewer; ovary 
one-celled (rarely two-celled) ; free from calyx; fruit one-seeded; 
embryo in the albumen, when there is any, its radicle pointing 
upward. 

Flowers consisting of single sepal inclosing pistil or capsule Cannabis 

Cannabis 

N. Cannabis, Indian Hemp. — 0. Flowering tops of the female 
plant of Cannabis sativa; Urticacem. — H. Asia; collected in In- 
dia. — D. Only the flowering tops of the female plant should be 
used. Branches about five to seven cm. long, with a few digitate 
leaves with linear-lanceolate leaflets and numerous sheathing 
pointed bracts, each containing two small pistillate flowers, some- 
times with the nearly ripe fruit, the whole more or less aggluti- 
nated with a resinous adhesive exudation; color, brownish-green; 
odor peculiar, narcotic and taste slightly acrid. It should consist 
only of the short branches of the flowering tops of the female 
plants grown in East India, and from which the resin has not 
been removed; this article is known (see Fig. 58) in the trade as 
gunjah, ganja or guaza. The variety of hemp grown in Russia and 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



115 



other parts of Europe, and in America, is almost destitute of resin 
and is generally considered to be medicinally inferior. — C. Resin. — 
U. Anodyne, nervine, in large doses narcotic. In Oriental coun- 
tries it has been used as an intoxicant and exhilarant from times 
immemorial, being the "hasheesh" of those countries, and is 




Fig. 57. 



sometimes swallowed, sometimes smoked. Its effects are indi- 
cated by its East Indian names, "Increaser of Pleasure," "Ex- 
citer of Desire," etc. Used in tetanus, insanity, delirium tre- 
mens, etc. Dose: 0.1 to 0.3 gram, best in extract or fluid extract. 
Bhang consists of the dried leaves and small stalks of Cannabis; 
it is an inferior article, excluded from use by the official descrip- 
tion. In the Orient it is used for smoking, . for making a sweet- 
meat called majoon, or an intoxicating drink by infusing bhang 
in water. 




Fig. 58. 



Churrus is the resin which exudes spontaneously in minute drops 
from the stems, leaves and tops. It is gathered by rubbing the 
tops with -leather gloves, to which the resin adheres and from 
which it is afterwards scraped. It is used only in the Orient, 
for smoking. 



116 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Hasheesh is the Arabic name for hemp, and consists of the tops 
gathered some time before the seeds are ripe. 

Bhang and Hasheesh or a drug much crumbled or discolored, 
or consisting mainly of long barren stems, should not be employed 
in medicine. The bare stems, without leaves or tops, are some- 
times sold as Cannabis Indica; they are probably the refuse ob- 
tained when larger quantities are garbled. To sell these as Can- 
nabis must be due to ignorance or fraud. 



CRYPTOGAMOUS DRUGS 

Crypto gamous plants are nowerless plants, that is, they have no 
stamens or pistils, but produce instead of seeds minute one-celled 
germinating bodies called spores, in which there is no embryo or 
rudimentary plantlet. They are divided into two classes, Thal- 
logens or Thallophytes, and Acrogens. 

Thallogens comprise the lower orders of nowerless plants in 
which there is no marked distinction into root, stem and leaves, 
the entire thallus consisting of simple cell elements without regu- 
lar epidermis or fibro-vascular bundles. The thallus may have 
any kind of form, leaf-like, stem-like, branched, flattened or 
gathered into compact or globular forms, or drawn out into 
threads, or to single rows of cells, or even reduced to single cells. 
The axis of growth is indefinite and indeterminate, growth tak- 
ing place chiefly peripherically and horizontally. Of the subdi- 
visions of this group of plants the algales, lichenales and fungales 
furnish drugs. 

Acrogens are the higher class of nowerless plants and are char- 
acterized by having a distinct and determinate axis of growth, 
with frequently distinct foliage. They are subdivided into two 
sub-classes, Vascular Acrogens, or Pteridophytes, which have wood- 
cells and vessels (fibro-vascular bundles), and Cellular Acrogens, 
or Bryopliytes, composed of simple cellular tissue only, without 
wood or vessels. Of the vascular acrogens, lycopodiacem, equis- 
etacece and filices furnish drugs, while the cellular acrogens 
(mosses, etc.,) furnish no drugs. 

Many of the cryptogamous drugs are really sufficiently com- 
plete to be determined botanically, and would therefore belong 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



117 



under Group IX, which we have just considered; but owing to 
the fact that but few pharmacists ever study the cryptogams 
thoroughly, we place these drugs under parts of plants not com- 
plete enough for botanical determination, and group them as 
follows: — 

f Algales Group 10 



Cryptogams 



Thallogens J Lichenales . . 
I Fungales . . . . 

(Lycopodiaceas 
Equisetacese . 
s 



Filieej 



11 
12 

13 
14 
15 



GROUP X 

Algales. — Usually highly colored plants, aquatic or growing on 
damp rocks, walls, etc. ; sometimes frondose, sometimes reduced 
to a few cells or a single cell. Fructification monoecious or dioe- 
cious, sometimes consisting of special cells of two sexes, some- 
times of simple mobile spores, sometime of antheridia and spo- 
rangia, which are free or inclosed in capsules. 

Thallus filiform, much branched, horny, translucent Chondrus 

Thallus with large air vesicles Tucus 

Thallus round, long, stem-like Lamiiiaria 

Mixture of several small seaweeds Corsican Moss 



Chondrus 

N. Irish Moss, Carrageen. — 0. The drug consists of the two sea- 
algae, Chondrus crispus ( Splicer ococcus crispus) and Gigartina ma- 
millosa, Algales, bleached and dried by exposure to the sun. — H. 
Atlantic ocean. Both algae are gathered on the coasts of Ireland and 
New England. — D. From five to fifteen cm. long, many times two- 
forked, the segments varying somewhat in width, the ends either 
two-forked or emarginate ; yellowish- white, horny and translu- 
cent; slight seaweed odor and saline mucilaginous taste. In Ch. 
cr. the spore-vessels are imbedded in the frond, as in the large 
figure, a showing a sporocarp in section and o showing the small 
bodies contained in the sporocarp ; G.m. has the sporocarps raised 
on short stalks, as in c, or in section in d. The dried drug swells 
in water, resuming its original shape and is so represented in the 



118 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



drawing. Boiled with thirty times its own weight of water it 
yields a mucilage which gelatinizes on cooling and does not turn 
blue with iodine T. S. (absence of starch.) — C. Mucilage and traces 




Fig. 59. 



of iodine and bromine. — U. Demulcent and nutrient, but without 



the medicinal virtues usually ascribed to it. 
in decoction or jelly. 

Agar-Agar 



Dose: 5 to 10 grams 



Several varieties of Fu'cus or Sphwrococcus come into trade un- 
der this title ; the Ceylon variety of Agar-agar consists mainly of 
Splicer ococcus lichenoides; Macassar Agar-agar consists of Eucheuma 
spinosum; Japanese Agar-agar, most frequently employed for the 
culture of bacteria, is made by treating several algae (Sphcerococcus 
compressus, Gelidium cameum, etc.) with boiling water, letting the 
resulting solution set into a jelly, which is cut into slices and 
dried; it occurs in translucent pieces, two feet long and as thick 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



119 



as a straw, or in yellowish white masses a foot long and about an 
inch wide. (See Group LXXVIII.) 

Fucus 

N. Bladderwrack. — 0. The whole sea-alga Fucus vesiculosus, 
generally mixed with Fucus nodosus; Algales. — H. Atlantic ocean. 
Gathered on the shores, especially after storms, and much used 




Fig. 60. 



as fertilizer or to make kelp, the ash from which iodine is pre- 
pared. — D. The figures show both algae, reduced to about two- 
thirds of the natural size; the broad frond with two air-vesicles 
side by side is F. ves., and the narrow frond with single vesicles is 
F. nod. Fucus vesiculosus, which forms the bulk of the drug, is 
often up to a meter long, averaging about fifteen mm. in width ; flat- 
tened, branched, and with a ridge or "midrib," the air- vesicles 
usually in pairs, and some of the frond-ends enlarged and nodulated 



120 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



by the organs of fructification; dark-brown or blackish; odor like 
sea-weeds and taste saline mucilaginous. Fucus nodosus is narrow, 
rounded, without "midrib," and with single air-vesicles ; other- 
wise similar to F. ves. — C. Mucilage and traces of iodine and bro- 
mine. — U.. Alterative and tonic. Dose: About 2 grams, in de- 
coction. 

Laminaria 

N. Sea-tangle. — 0. The stem-like frond of Laminaria digitata; 
Algales. — H. Atlantic ocean; about the coasts of Scotland. — D. 
Stem-like, one-half to two meters long, without joints or 
branches, about ten to fifteen mm. thick, somewhat flattened; 
elastic and horny; usually covered with a thin film of salt. The 




Fig. 61. 



figure shows a small piece with a view of the section at a; 
when soaked in water it swells to about four times its previous 
diameter, as shown at b. — U. Sea-tangle tents and bougies are 
made by trimming down pieces of this plant to the desired sizes 
and diameters ; these are used like sponge-tents, to dilate sinuses, 
etc., but mainly in gynecological practice to dilate the mouth 
of the womb. 

Corsican Moss is a mixture of small seaweeds, of which Gigar- 
tina Helminthocorton is the principal one; it consists of different, 
delicate, filiform, repeatedly forked and intertangled algae, vary- 
ing in color from pale yellowish-brown to blue-black. Helmintho- 
corton is pale brown, filiform, horny, round, branched, and striped 
transversely and has a salty, mucilaginous taste and seaweed 
odor. It is supposed to have anthelmintic properties, but Cor- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 121 

sican Moss is mainly used by the inhabitants of the countries ad- 
joining the Mediterranean Sea for the same purposes as Irish 
or Iceland moss is used further north. In this country it is sel- 
dom kept in drug stores, except in neighborhoods containing 
French or Italian people. The drug is also known as Helmin- 
thocorton. 

GROUP XI 

Lichenales. — These are cellular perennial acotyledons, growing 
on the ground, stones, barks, etc. ; a perfect lichen usually consists 
of a thallus or vegetative apparatus; apothecia or organs of fructi- 
fication, and spermagonia or organs of fertilization. The thallus 
is very variable in shape as Avell as in color and texture; it never 
has stomata and it is usually dry and leathery. It may be fila- 
mentous, crustaceous, erect, etc., and gray, white, yellow, red, 
brown or black in color. 

It is beyond the scope of this book to refer to the fantastic 
theory that lichens are not a distinct group of plants, but a 
colony of fungi which holds a large number of algae in captivity ; 
practically, master fungi with slave algae. We prefer to believe 
that lichens are lichens. 

They are by some considered to be a subdivision of fungi, dif- 
fering from ordinary fungi by having chlorophyll. 

Irregularly lobed lichens, brownish-gray above and grayish-white 

below Cetraria 

Flat lichen, brownish, with oval prominences on one side and cor- 
responding depressions on the other side Sticta 

Cetraria 

N. Iceland moss. — 0. The whole lichen Cetraria Islandica; Li- 
chenales. — H. Northern Hemisphere. — D. Irregularly lobed, folia- 
ceous lichen, about five to ten cm. long, reddish to brownish- 
gray above and grayish-white beneath, with small faintly marked 
white depressions and the margins of the lobes, which are often 
recurved, beset with minute teeth; little or no odor and a bit- 
terish and- mucilaginous taste. It should be freed of pine leaves, 
mosses and other lichens, by careful garbling. When soaked in 
water, it becomes soft, cartilaginous and translucent, and when 



122 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



boiled with twenty-five times its own weight of water it yields 
a decoction which gelatinizes on cooling. — C. Lichenin and liche- 
noid, both closely analogous to starch. — U. Demulcent and nu- 




Fig. 62. 



trient, supposed to exert a soothing effect on irritated bron- 
chial mucous membranes. Dose: 5 to 10 grams in decoction or 
jelly. Much used as an ingredient in ''pectoral teas." 

Sticta 

N. Lichen pulmonarius ; Lungmoss. — 0. The whole lichen 




Fig. 63 



Sticta pulmonacea; Lichenales. — H. Europe.— D. Grows on the 
stems of oaks, beeches, etc., often hanging down in long shreds. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 123 

Broad leathery sheets, smooth on the upper surface with oval de- 
pressions and corresponding elevations on the other side which 
is rough or felted from thin rootlike fibers; odor slightly mouldy 
and taste bitter and mucilaginous. — C. It contains mucilaginous 
and bitter constituents, similar to those found in Iceland moss, 
and is used for the same purposes and in the same manner. 



GROUP XII 

Fungales. — Cellular acotyledons, generally parasitic on de- 
caying, and sometimes on living animal and vegetable substances. 
They are sometimes perennial, more often ephemeral, grow best 
in the shade, and have no fronds, stomata or green parts. The 
organ of vegetation is called the mycelium; the organs of fructi- 
fication are borne on the mycelium, and are very variable in form, 
and bear spores either on the exterior or interior. 

Fusiform, purplish -black grains Ergota. 

Irregular, brown-black masses, partly membranous, partly pul- 
verulent Ustilago. 

White, tough, light masses Agaric. 

Thin, brown, pliable, velvety sheets Spunk. 

Semifluid, viscid, frothy substance Yeast. 

White or yellowish grains Kefir-seed. 

Round dark brown masses, pulverulent within . . .• Puff-balls. 

Ergota 

N. Ergot; Ergot of Rye; Secale cornutum. — 0. The sclerotium 
of Claviceps purpurea (Fungales.), replacing the grain of rye, 
Secale cereale (Graminacece). — H. On the inflorescence of rye, in 
Southern Europe. The same fungus also grows on various other 
grasses in all parts of the world, but the variety growing on rye 
is the only kind officially recognized. — D. Ergot consists of grain- 
like bodies about two to five cm. long and three to four mm. 
thick; the ordinary average size of fair ergot is about 2.5 cm. by 
3 mm. The grains are obtusely triangular, somewhat curved, 
marked lengthwise by a groove on each of the three sides, the 
groove on the inner side of the curve being most marked and 
often more or less deeply fissured; the grains are thickest in 
the middle and taper toward the blunt ends; color externally 



124 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

dark purplish, with a slight coating of bluish bloom, lighter-colored 
or grayish-white within; the grains break with an abrupt frac- 
ture, old and dry grains being brittle, and fresh, good ergot 
somewhat elastic before breaking ; odor is peculiar, heavy and of- 
fensive, and taste is mawkish, fatty or disagreeable; the strong 
odor developed by treating ergot with solution of potassium hy- 
droxide is due to decomposition resulting in the production of 
trimethylamine, which, when present in the fluid extract, ren- 
ders the latter nauseating and less active. — C. No isolated sub- 
stance constitutes the active principle of ergot; the ergotine of 
the trade is merely a solid extract; fixed oil, ecboline, ergotine, 
sclererythrin, secalin, cornutine, sclerotic and ergotic acids, etc., 
have been isolated, but some of these substances probably were 
the products of the processes employed and do not exist in the 




Fig. 64. 

drug. — U. Excito-motor, causing contraction of the unstriped 
muscular fibers of the arterioles, sphincter muscles, uterus, etc. 
Parturient, ecbolic, emmenagogue, hemostatic. Dose: One to two 
grams up to thirty grams in urgent cases of hemorrhages, etc., 
to be given in powder, infusion or best in fluid extract. Cases 
of poisoning are reported to have been produced by ergot, and 
stimulants advised to be given as antidotes; such poisoning, if it 
does occur, is probably due to decomposition or rancidity of the 
drug or its preparation. 

The drug is liable to be attacked by mites; to prevent this it 
should be carefully dried at not above fifty degrees C, and not 
to perfect dryness, so that it may still retain some of the elas- 
ticity of fresh ergot, then kept in closed tins or bottles into which 
a few drops of chloroform have been poured; the drug should be 
obtained fresh each season, and the old thrown away. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 125 

In the trade there are two varieties, the "German" and the 
"Spanish." They are not really different varieties, for ergot is 
often sifted or garbled after importation and the large, bold 
grains sold as "Spanish" and the smaller, less developed grains 
as "German" ergot. Spanish ergot, being the better article, is 
therefore to be preferred for medicinal uses ; or the ergot, as im- 
ported, garbled merely to remove foreign seeds and substances, 
should be used without separating the large from the small grains. 

Much broken, small, lean, unclean, worm-eaten, mouldy or too 
hard and dry ergot is totally unfit for use; the same is true of a 
drug having an ammoniacal odor, which is due to decomposi- 
tion, or one having no smell at all. 

Ustilago 

N. Cornsmut. — 0. The whole plant Ustilago Maydis; F unga- 
tes. — H. Grows on all parts of Indian corn, Zea Mays (Gramin- 




Fig. 65. 

acece), but especially on the ear. — D. Occurs in irregular globose 
masses, sometimes twelve to fifteen cm. thick, consisting of a 
tough external membrane, brownish-black in color, and contain- 
ing a friable pulverulent mass of innumerable brownish-black 
spores; odor and taste peculiar and unpleasant. The drug often 
contains pieces of corn-cob or of corn-shucks, and is mostly a 
fine powder. — C. No active principle has been isolated ; some fixed 
oil, a substance resembling sclerotic acid, etc. — U. Same as ergot, 
supposed by some to be preferable in midwifery practice, because it 
strengthens the "pains" without lengthening them; the drug is 
rarely used and while official in the United States Pharmaco- 



126 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

poeia 1880, was dropped from the United States Pharmacopoeia in 
1890; it is at best of doubtful value. Dose: 1 to 5 grams; average 
dose about two grams, best in fluid extract. 

Agaricus 

N. Agaric ; Agaricus albus; White agaric. — 0. It consists of 
fragments of the fungus Polyporus officinalis, F ungates. — H. Eu- 
rope; grows on the trunks of old larch trees. — D. As found in the 
shops it is broken up into irregular pieces, the outer rind having 
been removed, and is of a dirty white color, light in weight, of 
a close, fibrous texture, mealy on the outer surface, easily rubbed 
to a powder through a sieve but pulverizable only with great 
difficulty in a mortar ; odor resembles fresh flour, and if the pow- 
der is inhaled it produces violent sneezing; taste sweetish, after- 
wards acrid and bitter. Agaric is liable to be attacked by an 
insect, and worm-eaten or dense, hard, yellowish pieces, or pieces 
without bitter taste, should be rejected. — C. Agaricin and 
resins. — U. Formerly much used as a purgative, especially as an 
ingredient of mixtures like the elixir ad longam vitam, etc. ; 
agaricin is highly esteemed as a remedy to check night-sweats. 
Dose of agaric as a drastic purgative, two to four grams ; in night- 
sweats, 0.10 to 0.20 grams. 

Spunk, or Agaricus Chirurgorum, Surgeons' Agaric, is ob- 
tained from the fungi Polyporus igniarius and Polyporus fomen- 
tarius, collected from beech trees in Sweden, Bohemia, Hungary 
and Switzerland; those growing on birches or oaks yield an in- 
ferior article. The outer surface of the fungus having been re- 
moved, the interior is cut into slices, which are then soaked in 
hot weak lye, boiled, washed, and beaten with mallets. As 
found in the trade it occurs in light, thin, dull yellowish-brown, 
soft velvety and pliable pieces; without odor or taste. Hard, 
uneven surgeons' agaric is useless. It is used as a mechanical 
hemostatic. 

When used as tinder it is called fungus igniarius; which is the 
same as above, but soaked in a solution of potassium nitrate and 
then dried. 

Yeast, or Fermentum, Brewers' Yeast, is the fungus Saccharo- 
myces cerevisice, obtained as a foam when preparing beer and other 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 127 

fermented malt liquors. Only the fresh yeast is used in medicine ; 
a whitish or pale 3 T ellowish-brown viscid liquid or frothy semi- 
fluid showing innumerable oval cells under the microscope, single 
and in chains. Yeast has a disagreeable, peculiar odor and a bit- 
ter taste. It has been used internally as an antiseptic and stimu- 
lant, in typhoid conditions, various forms of dyspepsia, in dia- 
betes, etc., and externally as a stimulant dressing in indolent ul- 
cers. Dose: Fifteen to fifty cm. before meals. 

For ordinary use, as when yeast is employed in tests, for in- 
stance the quantitative fermentation test for sugar in the urine, 
it is more convenient to use ' ' compressed yeast ; ' ' this is made by 
separating the liquid from ordinary brewers' yeast by a centri- 
fuge and cutting the thick pasty mass thus obtained into small 
cubes, which occur in the grocery trade wrapped in tinfoil. 



&® @<^ 




This is also the form in which yeast is now most frequently em- 
ployed in the household for baking. 

Kefir is a preparation made by placing a peculiar fungus mass 
into milk which then ferments and produces a drink which is 
similar to koumyss. The fungus used for the purpose is obtained 
from the mountainous regions of the Caucasus and consists of 
white or yellowish grains which are called "Kefir-seeds." The 
exact origin and nature of these grains are not known, but the 
grains contain several lower organisms or fungi of which the 
Saccharomyces cerevisice which constitutes brewers' yeast is one. 
The Kefir-seeds constitute the drug. 

Puff -Ball, the whole fungus Boletus or Lycoperdon cervinus, is 
occasionally found in drug stores. Round pieces about the size 
of walnuts, consisting of an external dark-brown membrane 
which does not open spontaneously when ripe, and filled with a 
dust-like powder of dark-brown spores. Formerly employed in 
nervous diseases; now nearly obsolete. 



128 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



GROUP XIII 

Lycopodiace;e. — Low moss-like plants, with elongated and often 
much branched stems covered with small lanceolate, or subulate, 
rarely oblong or rounded, persistent entire leaves; the one to 
three-celled sporangia, solitary in the axils or on the upper sur- 
faces of the leaves along the entire stem or in terminal catkins, 
open when ripe into two or three valves and discharge the numer- 
ous yellow spores. 

Light-yellow, very mobile powder Lycopodium 

Lycopodium 

N. Lycopodium. — 0. The spores of Lycopodium clavatum and 
other species of club-mosses; Lycopodiacece. — H. Europe, — D. A 
fine, very mobile, pale yellowish powder, without odor or taste, 
burning with a flash when thrown in a flame; swims on water and 




Fig. 67. 

is not wet by it, unless boiled, when it sinks in the water. Un- 
der the microscope it is seen to be of the shape in the upper figure, 
rounded on one side, angular on the other; in the sporangia sev- 
eral spores adhere in a globular shape and the angular surfaces 
are formed by their breaking apart. Adulterations with pine- 
pollen, which consists of a central body with globular lobes at 
the two ends, as shown in the lower figure, or with other pollens, 
starch, fine sand, etc., are easily detected with the microscope. 
When burned it should not leave more than four per cent of 
ash. — C. About forty-seven per cent fixed oil. — U. As a protective 
by dusting on excoriated or chafed surfaces; in pharmacy, as 
a conspergative for pills, troches, plasters, suppositories, etc., to 
prevent adhesion to each other. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



129 



GROUP XIV 

Equisetace/E. — .Rushlike, often branching plants, with jointed 
and mostly hollow stems, rising from running rootstocks, having 
denticulated sheaths at the joints and when fertile terminated by 
a conical or spike-like fructification composed of shield-shaped 
stalked scales bearing the spore-cases beneath; the spores are 
provided Avith elaters or processes which are coiled around the 
spores while moist and expand when dry, often suddenly so that 
the spores may jump some distance. 
Jointed, slender stems, about 60 cm. long Equisetum 

Equisetum 

N. Horse-tail; Scouring Rush. — 0. The stems of Equisetum ar- 
vense and Equisetum hyemalej Equisetacece. — H. Europe and 




Fig. 68. 

North America.— D. Simple, hollow, jointed, bright green, slen- 
der stems, about fifty to sixty cm. long and four to eight mm. 
thick; the illustration shows the end of a stem of E. hyemale, 
about natural size, and the fructification and spores enlarged.— 
C. A resin, which is the only medicinal constituent ; the plant 
also contains large quantities of silica which renders the stem 
rough, and useful for scouring and polishing metallic objects. — 
U. Diuretic; in renal affections, dropsies, etc. Dose: 5 grams, in 
infusion, during the day. 



GROUP XV 

Filices.— Cryptogamous plants, generally perennial, stemless, 
caulescent or arborescent ; fronds, borne on petioles called stipes, 
springing from the upper surface of the creeping rhizomes, or 



130 handbook Of pharmacognosy 

forming regular crowns which terminate erect stems; blades leafy, 
circinate in the bud, simple or pinnatifid, bearing on the under 
surface or along the margin groups (son) of sporangia which break 
open and discharge spores, when mature. 

Large rhizome beset with the bases of stipes Aspidium. 

Frond of fern with triangular leaflets and thin glossy brown 

stipes Adiantum. 

Hard, dark-brown rhizome beset with short remnants of stipes. . Polypodium. 
Pine, silky, glossy hairs Penghawar. 

Aspidium 

N. Aspidium; Filix mas; Malefern. — 0. The rhizome of Dryop- 
teris Filix mas and of Dryopteris marginalis ; Filices. — H. Northern 
temperate zone. — D. Malefern is a thick fleshy rhizome surrounded 



Fig. 69. 

by a number of the frond-bases or stipes, as shown in the illustra- 
tion. It is cylindrical, varying in length from ten to thirty cm. 
and in thickness about thirty to fifty mm. ; but in the drug it is 
often cut into several pieces, and sometimes split longitudinally. 
The transverse section of the rhizome without the stipes is from 
twelve to twenty-five mm. thick, as is shown in the middle figure, 
and shows about six to ten fibrovascular bundles in an interrupted 
circle, outside of which a few scattered bundles are also found. 
In the trade this drug occurs frequently in small pieces, the stipes 
being broken from the rhizome and the latter broken into short 
pieces; such a frond-base is about forty to fifty mm. long and six 
to ten mm. thick, as shown in the left-hand figure, but sometimes 
these fronds are peeled as illustrated in the right-hand figure. 
The unpeeled rhizome and fronds are covered with a brown, scaly, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



131 



glossy epidermis, but the interiors of both rhizomes and stipes are 
grass-green when fresh, and they should be rejected if they have 
turned brown from age; when about to use the drug all the brown 
and chaffy parts must be cut away and only the green parts used. 
Malefern consists mainly of parenchyma cells, with occasional 
short-stalked oil glands projecting from the inner walls of the 
cells into the cells themselves, and the bundles consist mainly of 
scalariform vessels or ducts. The odor is disagreeable, the taste 
sweetish, astringent, nauseous and acrid. — C. Volatile oil, fixed 
oil, resin, etc., which are contained in the oleo-resin. — U. Taenicide. 
Dose of the oleo-resin: 0.5 to 1 gram. 

The rhizomes of several other ferns which are used as substi- 




Fig. 70. 



tutes or adulterations, may be known by the much smaller 
diameter of the rhizome proper, even when the attached stipes 
make them appear as thick as the genuine malefern. 



Adiantum 

N. Maidenhair fern.— 0. The fronds of Adiantum Capillus Ve- 
neris and Adiantum pedatum; Filices. — H. The first named is a 
native of Europe, the last named is indigenous. — D. The drug- 
consists of the fronds of these ferns with the leaflets, as seen in 
natural size in the figure ; the edges of the leaflets are recurved, 
and the sporangia are attached under this edge, as shown at a 
where the leaflet is straightened out, and at b where it is shown 
in section. The leaflets are green while the stipes or stalks are 



132 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



glossy dark brown and filamentous, wherefore the name of "maid- 
enhair" (German: Frauenhaar, Venushaar) was given to the 
plant. The odor is slightly aromatic and the taste mucilaginous, 




Fig. 71. 

sweetish-bitter and astringent. — C. Mucilage, tannin and bitter 
principle. — U. Demulcent and expectorant. Dose: 3 to 5 grams 
in infusion or syrup. 

Polypodium 

N. Polypodium ; Rock-brake ; Brake-root. — 0. The rhizome of 
Polypodium vulgar e; Filices. — H. Europe and America. — D. The 
illustration shoAvs the shape well. The somewhat contorted rhi- 
zome is of the thickness of a large quill and is beset with rather 
scattered short tubercles or stipe-remains; externally reddish- 
brown and internally green when fresh and cinnamon-colored 
when old. On section about ten small fibro-vascular bundles are 






HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 133 

seen arranged in a loose circle, the predominant tissue being an 
amylaceous parenchyma. The taste is at first sweet, afterwards 
disagreeably acrid and bitter ; odor like rancid oil. — C. Not ana- 




lyzed. — U. Expectorant in asthma and catarrh ; also said to be pur 

gative 

syrup. 



gative and anthelmintic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion or 



Penghawar 

N. This substance is known by various names; Pill Cibotii, Pen- 
ghawar Djambi, Cibotium, Paku-Kidang or Pulu. — and H. It 
consists of the hairs from the fronds of many varieties of ferns 




Fig. 73. 



growing in Sumatra, Java, -and other tropical islands and coun- 
tries; mainly varieties of Cibotium, as C. Baromez, C. Djambianum, 
etc., all of which, as Berg conjectures, may be merely varieties of 



134 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Polypodium Baromez. Paku-Kidang is from Alsophila lurida, and 
other Javanese ferns. The hairs of Cibotium glaucum and other va- 
rieties of Cibotium come from the Sandwich Islands, and are 
known as Pulu or Pulu-Pulu.— D. Formerly the stipes, beset with 
hairs, came into trade, but now only the hairs are used. All of 
these ferns yield hairs which resemble each other closely, the 
drug consisting of glossy, golden-yellow or bronze-colored, curled 
and jointed, several or many-celled fine silky hairs which are 
from 1.5 to 3 cm. long, collapsed or flattened in such a way that 
the hairs appear to be twisted at the juncture of the separate cells; 
the individual cells or joints are flattened and often placed cross- 
wise to each other owing to torsion in the partition walls, thus 
producing the curling; odorless and tasteless. — C. A little tannin, 
resin, etc. — U. These hairs have been used to make pillows and 
mattresses, but in medical practice they are employed as a pow- 
erful local hemostatic and styptic drug, acting probably mainly 
or altogether in a mechanical manner by affording support to a 
forming clot. 

STRUCTURE OF ROOTS AND STEMS 

Since a large number of drugs are roots, rhizomes, stems or 
parts of stems, as woods, barks, etc., it is necessary that we study 
the minute structure of the various modifications of the descend- 
ing and ascending axes of plants. 

In the lower orders of cryptogams, which we have just con- 
sidered, there is little or no cell differentiation and these thallo- 
gens are without root, stem and leaf structure ; in the higher cryp- 
togams, the acrogens, such structures are apparent, but in the cel- 
lular acrogens they are still made up of simple cell-elements only, 
while in the vascular acrogens cell differentiation into various tis- 
sues takes place. 

Comparatively few plants are unicellular, and these only of the 
lowest orders of cryptogams, the thallogens; but most of the 
thallogens, and all plants higher than these, are made up of many 
or innumerable cells and in the vascular acrogens and the phane- 
rogams these cells are differentiated by changes in their shapes 
and in their cell walls, as already explained in the remarks devoted 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 135 

to the consideration of cell structure. These various cells unite to 
form "tissues." 

A tissue may be denned as an aggregation of many similar cells 
united to perform a common function, but the word ought not to 
be misunderstood to mean plant organs which also may have def- 
inite functions to perform, but may be composed of several tis- 
sues; thus, when we speak of seeds, roots, etc., as belonging to the 
"storing system of tissue," it does not mean that these organs 
are single tissues but that they are made up of systems of differ- 
ent tissues which together form the organs that act as food 
reservoirs. 

We have already considered the nature of parenchymatous and 
prosenchymatous cells, the characteristics of which must be firmly 
fixed in the mind; aggregations of parenchymatous cells form pa- 





Fig. 74. Fig. 75. 

renchymatoiis tissue or parenchyma, while aggregations of prosen- 
chymatous cells constitute prosenchymatous tissue or prosenchyma. 
Similarly, aggregations of collenchymatous or sclerenchymatous cells 
form collenchyma or sclerenchyma respectively, these names re- 
ferring to the nature of the cell walls, while the words parenchyma 
and prosenchyma refer to the shapes of the cells. In a general 
way all cells and tissues are either parenchymatous or prosenchy- 
matous, although in some of the thallogens the thallus consists of 
felted threads (hyphce), which do not strictly belong to either 
of these groups but which form a distinct and peculiar kind of 
tissue (pseudo-parenchyma) , which is, however, of minor interest 
to the pharmacognosist. 

In parenchyma the cells abut against each other by broad sur- 
faces, and' as the ends of the cells are not interlaced and the cell 
walls are usually soft, this tissue is easily torn or broken ; the cells 
in parenchyma are often so loosely aggregated that the cell walls are 



136 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

not compressed and many of the cells retain a spherical form with 
many minute intercellular spaces, as in the pulpy part of some 
fruits, but if such cells are brought into complete contact with the 
adjacent cells by pressure during growth they will become more 
or less regularly dodecahedral or twelve-sided; such cells are 
preferably spoken of as polyhedral or many-sided cells. In 
rapidly growing parts in which the growth is more rapid in one 
direction, as for instance, in the longitudinal direction of many 
roots and stems, the individual cells also may be elongated in the 
direction of most rapid growth, becoming cylindrical if lateral 
pressure is small, as in sarsaparilla (see Fig. 74), when small tri- 
angular or irregular intercellular spaces will be seen on transverse 




Fi £ . 76. 

section, or these spaces may be obliterated by lateral pressure 
when the cells assume prismatic shapes, the hexagonally prismatic 
form being most common, as seen in the transverse section of the 
parenchyma of couch-grass, dandelion root, etc. (See. Fig. 75.) 
As so large a portion of all pith and other fundamental paren- 
chyma tissue consists of cells which are compressed so as to ob- 
literate the small intercellular spaces, so that the polyhedral forms 
preponderate, it is advisable to make a simple experiment to show 
the shapes of these cells. Fill a pint or quart bottle completely 
with any fluid that will readily foam, as for instance with an in- 
fusion of quillaja, or a solution of soap in water to which a little 
glycerin is added, and then empty it by turning it upside down 
so that the fluid gurgles as it runs out and the air bubbles rise up 
through it ; a narrow necked bottle is best for the experiment, and 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 137 

when the liquid has all run out the bottle will be filled with a foam 
consisting of bubbles, which, by mutual pressure, will assume the 
dodecahedral or polyhedral form of the parenchyma cells we are 
considering, especially in the interior of the bottle, and it is in- 
structive to watch the various shapes assumed by the adjacent 
bubbles, as one after another of these bubbles burst and alter the 
pressure. The bubbles adjacent to the glass show the shapes of 
sections of these cells. 

Larger intercellular spaces than those just mentioned may be 
seen in calamus in which the cells are arranged as shown in the 
drawing (Fig. 76), the shaded cells containing starch, the undotted 
containing oleo-resin; examples of similar intercellular spaces may 
be found in most aquatic plants, as in the stems and leaf-stalks 
of calla, water-lilies, etc., and drugs having such structure usu- 
ally break with a corky or spongy fracture. In aquatic plants 
such large intercellular spaces are filled with air, which is also 
often the case in terrestrial plants having such spaces, but in 
the latter kind of plants these spaces sometimes contain oil or 




Fig. 77. 

latex (milk- juice) when, if they are nearly spherical, they are 
called "glands" (as in orange and lemon peels, etc.), while if 
they are long or tube-like, they are called "ducts;" but it must 
be remembered that such glands and ducts may also be formed 
by the absorption of cell partitions, in which case they are not 
intercellular spaces but true ducts. Whatever the nature or 
method of formation of such oil, resin, or latex ducts or spaces 
may be, the presence or absence of such ducts, spaces, or even 
large special cells, serves as a basis for group-divisions, as in 
Groups XVIII, XIX, XX, XXI, XXIII, and XXIV, while 
in any case, whether filled with air or anything else, they usually 
impart a characteristic appearance to the section and are therefore 
frequently of diagnostic value. 

In prosenchyma the ends of the long cells, which are often 



138 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

hardened by a deposit of ligiiin or sclerogen, are interlaced or 
spliced, as in the drawing of wood cells from sassafras root, so 
that this tissue is not readily torn apart or broken and it serves 
for mechanical support and strength. Wood cells, bast cells and 
most of the ducts belong to this system of tissues, and prosen- 
chyma is found mainly in the fibro-vascular bundles. 

Parts of plants which consist mainly of parenchyma are 
called "fleshy," while those containing mainly lignified pro- 
senchyma are "woody." 




Fig. 78. 

When we break the base of the petiole of a plantain leaf 
(from the common plantain weed, Plant ago major) we find that 
while we can readily break through most of the leaf -stalk, the 
broken ends are held together by a number of threads in the in- 
terior of the stalk; and if we pull the lower end with the threads 
towards the apex along the under side of the leaf, we can pull out 
these threads from the veins of the leaf. These thread-like 
strands are the fibro-vascular bundles, consisting of fibers or pro- 
senchyma cells and vessels, as the name implies. 

It is rarely the case that these fibro-vascular bundles can be 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 139 

pulled out as threads, for in most plants they are intimately 
grown together with or adherent to the surrounding tissues, so 
that we must make sections of the plant-organ which contains 
them to trace them and to study their characteristics. These 
sections can be made in four different directions, of which two 
at least are essential to a correct understanding of stem struc- 
ture; a third is often of value but the fourth is seldom required. 

Fig. 78 shows in what direction these sections are to be made; 
the transverse section (tr.) is at right angles across the axis of 
growth, and is by far the most useful and instructive; the radial 
section (r.) is often also called the longitudinal section and it 
passes along the axis of growth and along the line of a radius or a 
line from the center to the circumference, and it is next to the 
transverse section in importance, as it shows the nature of the 
elements of the nbro-vascular bundles, the ducts, wood fibers, 
etc. ; the tangential section (tang.) also passes along the axis of 
growth, but at right angles across a radius, and it is useful mainly 
for the study of the medullary rays; finally, we may have oc- 
casion to make an oblique section (o.) although but little is to be 
learned from it and it is very rarely intentionally made, but 
quite frequently accidentally made of fibro-vascular bundles, es- 
pecially in monocotyls, when we make sections just below the 
point where one of the bundles is bent outwards to go to a leaf 
or rootlet, and which then appears as an oval section of a bun- 
dle differing in appearance from both the transverse and longi- 
tudinal sections of the same kind of bundle. 

In classifying plants or drugs we frequently use the terms 
mono-cotyledonous" and " di-cotyledonous, " for instance in 
Ray's System of Taxonomy, in A. D. 1686: 

Ray's System, A. D. 1686. 
Flowerless Plants. 

.„, _, f Mono-cotyledonous. 

Flowering Plants { ^. , , 

( Di-cotyledonous 

J Woody trees. 

[Herbaceous plants. 

Further subdivisions based on fruits, 



140 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Also in the system used in Gray's Manual of Botany: 



Natural System, Gray's Manual. 



Series. 



Cryptogams 



Class. Subclass. 

(Angiosperms 
Gymno-sperms. 



Mono-cotyledons. 
(Endogens) 

f Pteridophyta. 
fAcrogens j Bryophyta. 

I Thallogens. Thallophyta. 



Division. 
Polypetalae. 
Gamopetalse. 
Apetalse. 



Let us fix in our minds what these words mean and even more, 
what they imply; the word ' ' mono-cotyledonous '* means that 
the embryo in the seed has only one cotyledon or seed-leaf, as 
in the seeds of Indian corn, colchicum, etc., but it implies much 
more; it implies that the plant growing from- such a seed has 
parallel-veined leaves, flowers arranged on the numerical plan 
of 3, and that its axis shows "endogenous" structure." It is cus- 
tomary, although not strictly correct, to say or write "mono- 
cotyledonous structure" when we mean "endogenous structure." 

The word "di-cotyledons" means that the embryo in the seed 
of such a plant has two cotyledons or seed-leaves as in the seeds 
of the peanut, almond, bean, etc., but it implies that the plant 
growing from such a seed has netted-veined leaves, flowers usu- 
ally arranged on the numerical plan of 4 or more (usually 5), 
and that its axis shows "exogenous" structure. It is -also cus- 
tomary, although not strictly correct, to speak and write of 
" di-cotyledonous structure" when we mean "exogenous struc- 
ture;" but this careless use of the terms dates back, as shown 
above, to the times of Ray, in 1686, and usage has established the 
employment of the terms as explained. 

In a transverse section of the stem or root of a vascular crypto- 
gam or of a phanerogam it will be seen that the outer layer or 
layers of cells differ from the cells within. Perhaps the first and 
simplest change or differentiation of cells is the formation of an 
epidermis or cuticle, and even in thallogens in which there is no 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 141 

true cell differentiation the outer cells are usually smaller and 
with thicker walls although otherwise like the larger interior 
cells. In leaves, young twigs, flowers, fruits, etc., the outer layer 
of cells have their outer cell wall thickened by a deposit of cutin, 
thus forming a true cuticle or epidermis, while in older stems, 
roots, etc., cork or suoer is formed under the epidermis which latter 
finally disappears entirely, so that in older parts cork then forms 
the outermost layer. Cutin is chemically identical with cork but 
differs in being deposited in the cell walls of the epidermal layer 
only, while cork is deposited in layers which are sometimes many 
hundreds of cells thick. 

If we make a transverse section from the young stalk of In- 
dian corn (Zea Mays) which is easily obtained by planting a 
grain of corn and then taking the stalk for examination when it 




Fig. 79. Fig. 80. 

is of about the thickness of a lead pencil, we will see that it 
appears circular, or nearly so, and is surrounded by the epider- 
mis and that the interior consists mainly of parenchymatous tis- 
sue with irregularly scattered circular clusters of cells appearing 
like dots, which latter are the sections of the fibro-vascular 
bundles, as diagrammatically represented in Fig. 79. These dots 
are distributed throughout the entire thickness of the stem, as is 
seen in the section, but so that the outer dots are somewhat smaller 
than those nearer the center of the section. This section shows 
the most common structure of monocotyls, and the structure is 
called endogenous (or inward growing) because as the plant be- 
comes older it increases in thickness by a formation of new 
fibro-vascular bundles among and between the others, and as 



142 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

these are formed when the plant is larger the bundles also be- 
come larger, so that the newer and larger bundles are found 
mainly in the interior of the plant. In Fig. 80 we see a simple 
modification of this structure, for a layer of cells forming in the 
section a ring concentric with and some distance within the 
cuticle separates the parenchyma into two portions, and this ring 
of cells which, in the stem, forms a cylinder or tube, is called the 
nucleus sheath; within this sheath the fibro-vascular bundles are 
disposed, just as they are disposed in Fig. 79 throughout the en- 
tire thickness of the stem. 

This type of structure, diagrammatically shown in Fig. 80 can 
be seen in orris root. In a drug of this kind the part outside of 
the nucleus sheath is sometimes spoken of as "bark" or "cor- 
tex, ' ' but this is wrong, because monocotyls have no bark. 

In monocotyls the cells which do not belong to the cuticle, nu- 
cleus sheath or the fibro-vascular bundles, belong to the paren- 
chyma, which is called the fundamental tissue. 

Many students seem to fail to associate the drawings of trans- 
verse sections with the idea of continuity throughout the length 
of the axis of the plant. Suppose that some experimenter like 
Roentgen would discover a new kind of x-rays which would ren- 
der all the parenchyma of the fundamental tissue of plants trans- 
parent or invisible while the cuticle or outer bark and fibro-vas- 
cular bundles remained visible as concrete objects, a mono-coty- 
ledonous stem, as that of Indian corn, would then appear like a 
tube within which a number of threads or thin rods were arranged 
lengthwise, the space between being filled with the transparent 
medium, the fundamental tissue. Since we have no such con- 
venient x-rays, let us substitute our imagination and fancy the 
fundamental tissue to be invisible ; let us imagine a portion of the 
cuticle on the side nearest us to have been cut away so that we 
can look into the inside of the stem, and on looking through a 
suitable magnifying lens we would see the structures as shown 
in the lower part of the figure. If we cut across such a structure 
the appearance of the surface would be as is shown in the map of 
the section projected above the stem, in the circle in the upper 
part of the figure. If we were to cut off a thin slice from the end 
this would be a transverse section and such a section is therefore 
practically a map showing the manner of distribution of the dif- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



143 



ferent tissues in the stem; but the relation of this transverse sec- 
tion (or map) to the real continuity of the tissues themselves, 
as shown in the figure, should always be mentally associated 
with the examination of every section. 




Fig. 81. 



The fibro-vascular bundles do not always run so parallel to 
each other in monocotyls, but only in long internodes devoid of 
branches or rootlets. When rootlets are attached along the en- 
tire length of a rhizome, for instance, or when growth in length 



144 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



is accomplished by the continual and successive formation of new 
leaves at the apex, as in palms, some of the nbro-vascular bun- 
dles from the interior of the plant are bent outwards to enter 
these rootlets or leaves, as is diagrammatically represented in 
the accompanying drawing of a longitudinal section of a palm 
stem (Fig. 82). 

Drugs are recognized by the manner of the distribution and re- 
lation of the bundles to each other and to the other tissues rather 
than by the cellular elements of the bundles themselves, just as 
we recognize a friend by the relation of eyes, nose and mouth to 
each other and to the rest of the face, rather than by a conscious 




Fig. 82. 

recognition of the exact color of eyes or hair, or by an observ- 
ance of any minute peculiarities, of the several features. 

Besides the two methods of arrangement of stems with and 
without a nucleus sheath, as already figured, there are several 
other types of endogenous arrangement, which are of importance. 
One of these types may be seen in sarsaparilla, the peculiarity of 
which is that all the nbro-vascular bundles are closely aggregated 
just within the nucleus sheath, leaving a large pith-like paren- 
chyma in the interior, as in Fig. 83 ; the other type may be seen in 
calamus, galanga, ginger, etc., where a nucleus sheath is present, 
but the bundles are scattered both within and without this 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



145 



sheath, as in Fig. 84. In some cases, as in the sarsaparillas, the 
cells of the nucleus sheath are characteristic of certain varieties, 
so that they may be of diagnostic value. 

Still other arrangements are found in the hollow stems of 
monoeotyls, as in the culms of grasses, etc. Cut a section of 





Fig. 83. 



Fig. 84. 



straw and the bundles are found arranged within the cuticle as in 
Fig. 85, while in the rhizome of couch-grass Ave find a nucleus 
sheath and the bundles within this, as in Fig. 86, while in both 
we see the large central cavity. 





Fig. 



Fig. 86. 



These figures, it should be remembered, illustrate diagram- 
matically the types of arrangement and not sections of individual 
drugs which may, and generally do, vary from the circular form, 
being quite frequently flattened or oval in section. We will post- 
pone a consideration of the nature of the nbro-vascular bundles of 



146 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

monocotyls until we have considered the structure of dicotyls and 
polycotyls (conifers), the exogenous structure. 

To understand the structure of exogenous stems, let us examine 
the following three drawings, after Sachs. If we make a sec- 
tion at the extreme tip of the growing radicle or root of the cas- 
tor oil plant (Bicinus communis) we would find only one kind of 
parenchyma cells, the fundamental tissue, but a section from 
near the end of this radicle soon after it makes its appearance 
beyond the seedcoats shows a circle of cells somewhat different 
from the cells of the fundamental tissue, as indicated by the 
shaded circle marked x in Fig. 87; this layer of cells is called 
meristem or primary meristem, and from it the fibro-vascular bun- 
dles are produced. 





Fig. 87. Fig. 88. 

The fundamental tissue within this circle forms the medulla or 
pith (m), while the fundamental tissue without this circle forms 
the middle bark (r), the epidermis, or in older roots and stems the 
cork, forming the outer bark. It will be noticed that at some 
points the meristem layer is thicker than at others, and a section 
made from a root which is a little older, when the radicle has 
reached a length of about two cm. below the cotyledons, shows 
that each of the four thicker portions of meristem has developed 
into two clusters of cells (fv) which are cross-sections of fibro- 
vascular bundles, thus making a circle of eight fibro-vascular 
bundles (fv) shown in the shaded part of the drawing (Fig. 88), 
which are separated from each other by cells which resemble those 
of the pith (m) and the middle bark and which are the medullary 
rays (st). The pith or medulla, the middle bark and the medullary 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



147 



rays together are all fundamental tissue. In Fig. 89 we see the 
development of the nbro-vascular bundles still farther advanced; 
fv shows the bundles, m is the pith from which the medullary 
rays radiate, r is the middle bark, but this drawing shows in ad- 
dition some bands of meristem crossing the medullary rays, at cb, 
connecting the fibro-vascular bundles. Such connecting bands 
when present are called secondary meristem, and it will be no- 
ticed that they are continuous with similarly shaded parts pass- 




Fig. 89. Fig. 90. 

ing through the nbro-vascular bundles, and that these nbro-vascu- 
lar bundles are arranged in a circle with the larger portion of each 
bundle within the meristem layer, and a smaller portion without 
the meristem layer, as is shown by the different shading of these 
parts in the last drawing. 

To examine the nature of these nbro-vascular bundles we may 
make a transverse section of the rhizome of black cohosh (Cimici- 
fuga) in which we find a large number of bundles of various sizes. 
Choosing one of the larger ones for examination (see Fig. 90) we 



148 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



see that it is made up of three parts, an outer part called bast or 
phloem (a), an inner part called wood or xylem (c) and between 
them a part composed of very soft parenchyma cells constituting 
the cambium (b) ; surrounding the whole bundle we see the paren- 
chyma cells of the fundamental tissue (d). As the bundle grows 
the cambium cells form new wood on the inner side and new bast 
on the outer side. The wood (xylem) consists mainly of prosen- 
chymatous wood cells, with cell walls which have become hard by a 
deposit of lignin, together with (usually) ducts and (sometimes) 




Fig. 91. 



wood-parenchyma, the latter being cells of parenchymatous shape, 
but with thickened walls. The bast (phloem) consists mainly of 
some soft walled parenchymatous cells, some sieve-ducts and, in 
many plants, thickened prosenchymatous bast cells, which latter 
aid in giving strength to the stem or root. 

The relation of the fibro-vascular bundles to each other and to 
the other tissues is seen in Fig. 91, which is a drawing of the 
structure of yellow parilla (Menispermum Canadense) ; as is al- 
ways the case in di-cotyledonous or exogenous growth, the fibro- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 149 

vascular bundles are arranged in a circle ; the central portion is the 
pith from which radiate the medullary rays (a) which separate 
the bundles from each other and connect the pith with the middle 
bark (f); the xylem or inner portion of the bundles (c) is separated 
from the phloem or outer portion (e) by the cambium (d); the 
cambium of the various bundles is connected by bands of secondary 
meristem (b), the two together forming the cambium zone. In 
woody plants all that lies within this cambium zone is called wood 
or wood-cylinder and all without this zone is called bark. The 
bark will be seen to be made up of three layers ; the outer bark (h ) 
consists of epidermis in young stems or roots and of cork in older 
structures; if the outer edges of all the bast portions of the 
fibro-vascular bundles are united by a line this line will mark the 
division between the middle bark (f) which consists of paren- 
chyma or fundamental tissue, and the inner bark, which consists of 
alternate portions of bast (e) and the continuation of the medul- 
lary rays (g). It will be seen that bark cannot exist in an endog- 
enous stem or root, because there is no cambium zone that sepa- 
rates the wood from the bast ; in fact, the bundles are not divided 
into these three parts as here shown in di-cotyledonous structure. 

Let us now suppose in regard to this exogenous structure, as 
we did in regard to the endogenous stem, that an X-ray might 
be found that would render all fundamental tissue in plants 
transparent or invisible while it left the fibro-vascular bundles 
and outer bark opaque and visible; removing a portion of the 
latter, and examining the interior we would see that the structure 
is as in Fig. 92, all the fibro-vascular bundles in a circle, witli a 
pith space in the interior, medullary rays between and middle bark 
around them, the last three parts being transparent or invisible 
under the influence of our imaginary X-ray, but the space which 
they should occupy being plainly shown. Here also the projec- 
tion of the section into the circle above shows the relation of such 
a section or map to the continuity of the tissues within the stem, 
and shows how such a transverse section, or a drawing of one, 
constitutes in reality merely a map, with which the idea of length 
or continuity must always be mentally associated. 

The fibro-vascular bundles are represented as being separate 
throughout the length of the stem, but this is the case only in 013 e 
type of fleshy di-cotyledonous stems, rhizomes, roots, etc., in which 



150 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

the fundamental parenchyma tissue preponderates and the fibro- 
vascular bundles are few and arranged in a loose circle, as in 
Fig. 93. This is also the general structure of herbaceous di-cotyle- 
donous plants, as in many of our annuals, vegetables, etc. Another 



Fig. 92. 



type of fleshy root or stem is when the bundles form a central wood- 
cylinder as in Fig. 94, but are not much lignified ; the first plan is 
seen in masterwort and podophyllum, and the second is seen in 
dandelion. A modification of the latter plan is seen in senega, as 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



151 



in these drawings (Fig. 95), where the wood-cylinder is not con- 
tinuous, but is irregularly interrupted by wide medullary rays. 

But the most characteristic exogenous structure is not seen in 
the fleshy plant axes, but in the woody roots and stems, in which 
there is but little fundamental parenchyma, the bundles are close 





Fig. 93. 



Fig. 94. 





Fig. 95. 



Fig. 96. 



together, and interwoven, and the wood cells are strongly lignified 
and therefore tough. In such a stem the fibro-vascular bundles are 
separated only for short distances by the medullary rays and are 
united with each other sideways, with their prosenchymatous cells 



152 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



interlacing. In some woods, as in white pine, this interlacing is not 
very intricate and this wood splits easily along the grain, but in 
other woods, as in lignum vitae, this interlacing is so intricate that 
even the hard usage given to tenpins and tenpin balls does not 
split the wood. The drawing (Fig. 96) represents diagram- 
matically a young twig of maple with the bark and cambium re- 
moved. It is readily seen that while a section a little farther up 
or down the stem will not show us the same bundles and the same 
medullary rays, yet one section must be practically identical with 
every other section, so that a drawing of a section will serve as 
a map of the structure equally as well as in the other examples 
illustrated, only with the additional proviso that we must bear in 





Fig. 97. 



Fig. 98. 



mind this joining of the bundles to form a solid and connected 
wood cylinder. 

The pith consists of parenchyma and is often continuous through- 
out the length of the stem; in some cases, however, it is inter- 
rupted by wood, the fibro-vascular bundles anastomosing at the 
nodes, as for instance in the grape-vine, of which a longitudinal 
section is shown, and in which it is supposed that the fibro- 
vascular bundles from the side of the stem on which a leaf is 
placed by this means convey nourishment direct to the other side, 
on which a bunch of fruit is growing. 

Sometimes the pith is present in young stems but ceases to 
grow as the stem enlarges so that the mature stem becomes hoi- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 153 

low with only shreds of pith adhering to the inner surface of the 
wood-cylinder, as in bittersweet. 

To the pharmacognosist it is of interest to know that stems 
contain more pith than the roots of the same plants, the roots 
often containing little or no pith when the stem contains a thick 
pith; this is often of diagnostic value in recognizing stems which 
have been added with fraudulent intent to drugs which should 
consist of roots only, as in belladonna root, bitter root, etc. 




Fig. 99. 

The medullary rays are seen as radiating lines in the transverse 
section, and in fleshy stems or roots they may extend for some dis- 
tance up and down the stem, but in woody stems or roots, as we 
have just learned, they are of short length and often only one or a 
few cells in thickness. If we make a radial section in such a man- 
ner as to cut through a medullary ray we will see that it consists 
of cells stretched radially across the fibro-vascular bundles and 
uniting the pith (p.) with the middle bark (m. b.), as is shown in 
Fig. 98. The function of the medullary rays is to conduct water 
and nourishing material to the inner parts of the stem, or at least 
as far inward as the sapwood extends. (See Woods, page 275,.) 

In Fig. 99 we see a transverse section of a young rose-twig with 



154 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



the large-celled pith in the center, three medullary rays separating 
the four fibre-vascular bundles shown, and the whole surrounded 
by the middle bark and epidermis. The three parts of the fibro- 
vascular bundles, xylem, cambium and phloem are plainly seen, 
and in the phloem or bast of the second bundle from the right a 
notch is seen, indicating the beginning of a division into two 
bundles as will be more fully illustrated presently. If we examine 
a somewhat older twig from the same rose-bush (Fig. 100) we will 
find the following to have taken place during growth: The cells 




Fig. 100. 



of cambium next to the xylem produced new wood cells, thus 
adding much to the radial dimensions of the fibro-vascular bundles, 
so that the latter became larger, and the wood became thicker and 
stronger. Meanwhile, also, more bast was produced from the 
cambium, but much more slowly than the wood. 

This change of cambium into wood and bast continues as long- 
as the leaves assimilate food, or, in other words, as long as the 
vegetative process keeps up, which varies with the plants, and 
depends on the seasons in their habitat, being uninterrupted in 
many tropical and subtropical regions where trees are found in 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 155 

which this process has probably gone on without intermission 
from a time previous to the building- of the Egyptian pyramids, 
while in subarctic regions the process may be limited to a few 
weeks ' duration ; in many plants the process extends only through 
a single season. 

When the plant grows during a part of the year only, as in the 
perennial woody plants of the temperate zones, growth is suspended 
during winter, although roots may form below the frost-line even 
in winter, as in trees transplanted in the fall of the year, for 
which reason fall transplanting is usually more successful than 




Fig. 101. 

spring transplanting, the plant becoming in a degree established 
before overground vegetation starts up. In spring the earliest sign 
of returning activity of vegetation is manifested by a great tur- 
gescence of the cambium and of the adjacent cells, to such an 
extent, that, if wounded, enormous quantities of sap may flow 
out, as seen in tapping sugar maples for their sap, or in the 
"bleeding" of grape vines when these are trimmed too late in 
the spring. Then the buds expand, the leaves unfold, and the life 
of the plant actively goes on. The inner layer of cambium pro- 
duces large ducts and large Avood cells, and the new wood is 



156 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



added in a ring around the wood of the previous season's growth; 
the process continues until, as the season goes on, the leaves 
harden, the stomata may be clogged with dust, the soil becomes 
parched by the heat of summer, and cell-formation gradually be- 
comes slower and the cells smaller, while ducts may entirely cease 
to be formed, until, when the leaves have fallen, the year's work 
is completed and another ring of wood has been added around the 
former wood-cylinder, as is shown in the two rings of a section of 
a two years old rose-twig in Fig. 101. 

These rings are generally easily distinguished, because in the 




Fig. 102. 



earlier part of the season, while growth is very active, a larger 
number of ducts and larger wood cells are formed, while towards 
fall the ducts are either smaller or entirely wanting and the 
wood cells also become smaller, so that the inner portion of each 
ring is more porous than the outer portion, as is shown in the 
section of the wood of sassafras root (Fig. 102); even in woods 
which have no ducts (wood of gymnosperms or conifer 'ae) the dif- 
ference in the sizes of the wood-cells makes the rings quite distinct. 
In perennial stems a new ring of wood is thus added each year, 
and we call these rings annual rings or lagers and as the newer 
rings are formed on the outside of the older rings, growth in thick- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 157 

ness takes place by the addition of new wood around the old, 
wherefore this is called exogenous (or outward growing) struc- 
ture. By counting these rings from the pith outward, we can 
ascertain the age of the stem, as in Fig. 103, where we see seg- 
ments of three annual rings between the two asterisks, the upper 
of which marks the cambium zone or margin between wood and 
bark, while the lower marks the boundary between the pith and 
wood. The three medullary rays crossing the ring of the first 
year are seen to continue outward to the middle bark ; if no new 
medullary rays were formed it is evident that the fibro-vascular 
bundles would become very wide in a few years, but when they 
have attained a certain width, the bast divides, as seen in the 




Fig. 103. 

first section shown of the rose-twig (Fig. 99), and after that this 
notch continues outward as a new medullary ray, so that the fibro- 
vascular bundles are divided year after year and approximately 
the same tangential dimensions of the bundles are maintained. 
In the last drawing (Fig. 103), for instance, eleven rays cross 
the segment of the third year's ring corresponding to the seg- 
ment of the first year's growth with only three rays; and the 
division is seen to have occurred in early spring at the com- 
mencement of each year 's growth, and after new rays are started 
they continue outward through the successive layers, so that 
while Ave can trace an original ray from the pith to the middle 



158 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



bark, we cannot trace back all the rays from the bark to the pith. 

In some cases the fibro-vascular bundles divide during the 
year's growth, as seen in the section of a rootlet of black cohosh, 
shown in Fig. 104. 

Of course it will be understood that annual rings are not found 
in fleshy or annual dicotyls, nor in the annual stems of perennial 
plants, but only in perennial woody stems and roots. 

In tropical climates vegetation continues more or less actively 




Fig. 104. 



throughout the year and in many plants the rings are not con- 
centrically continuous; they are then called spurious rings, as in 
false pareira brava, illustrated in Fig. 105, in which some layers 
only go part of the way around, while, in this particular section, 
one layer is in the form of a spiral which commences at sp. and 
makes three turns. 

In vascular acrogens we also find fibro-vascular bundles, usu- 
ally arranged in circles, and often of peculiar shapes on trans- 
verse sections as seen in this drawing of a segment of a stem of 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



159 



tree fern (Fig. 106) ; the fibro-vascular bundles of ferns consist 
almost altogether of scalariform ducts. 

When the stipes or bases of fronds are broken from the stem or 
rhizome of a fern, they often leave peculiar reticulated markings 
on the outside of the stem. The acrogenous structure is of little 
importance to the pharmacognosist, as only two drugs of this kind 
are used, of which only one, malefern, is important. 

We are now prepared to understand one more feature concern- 
ing fibro-vascular bundles, namely, the difference between open 
and closed bundles. In exogenous structures, as we have just 
learned, a bundle may continue to grow by additional development 
of wood from the cambium for an indefinite number of years, and 
such a bundle is said to be an ' ' open ' ' bundle ; in endogenous struc- 





Fig. 105 



Fig. 106. 



ture, however, the cambium is finally all changed to wood, ducts 
or wood parenchyma and the growth of the bundle ceases, and such 
bundles are said to be " closed" bundles. 

To distinguish the Cambium of the closed bundle from that of 
the open bundle, the former is sometimes called "procambium. " 
The accompanying drawing shows a section of the fibro-vascular 
bundle of ginger (Fig. 107). 

The transition from the young and still growing fibro-vascular 
bundles of a mono-cotyledonous stem to the fully formed and closed 



160 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



bundles, may be studied in a transverse section of bamboo cane, 
of which a photomicrograph follows (Fig. 108), in which the in- 
terior bundles are seen to have many soft-walled cells, while those 
of the exterior portions are all or nearly all lignified ; as the cut 




is shown, the cuticle is on the right and to the left we see some 
of the interior bundles. The bundles of the interior are not yet 
closed, but in the outer bundles cell-formation and cell-activity 
have ceased, and the latter are therefore "closed," and between 




Fig. 108. 



these two extremes there are all degrees of gradation between the 

youngest bundles still nearly all procambium, and the oldest in 

which procambium has been entirely replaced by formed material. 

The student will find excellent material for the study of 



handbook of pharmacognosy i61 

closed fibro-vascular bundles in many of the drugs of mono-cot- 
yledonous origin, and especially in the stem of Mexican sarsa- 
parilla, and it is recommended that sections of as many as pos- 
sible of these drugs be made. 

It is unnecessary to dwell on any further details in regard to 
the closed bundles of monocotyls, for ordinarily they may be 
considered as mere dots in the section, but, of course, if the 
bundles present some peculiarity that is uniformly alike and 
characteristic, such bundles may be of diagnostic value. In a 
variety of rush (J uncus effusus), for instance, one bundle is simi- 
lar to every other bundle, each having the same number of ducts 
and large intercellular spaces, regularly arranged as shown in 
Fig. 109, so that a fragment of a section containing even a single 




Fig. 109. 

bundle might enable one to recognize the identity or origin of 
the specimen. 

Closed fibro-vascular bundles are also found in acrogens and in 
some annual dicotyls, as Avell as in the skeletons of the leaves 
of both dicotyls and monocotyls. 



ROOTS 

In pharmacognosy we restrict the word "root" to its botanical 
meaning as referring to the descending axis of plants, but the 
theoretical characteristic of a "root-cap" is not recognizable in 
drugs of this class. The trade use of the word "root" to desig- 
nate all forms of underground parts, as rhizomes, tubers, corms, 
bulbs, etc, is wrong and confusing and should be avoided. 



162 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Roots are distinguished from stems by having no nodes or in- 
ternodes, no buds, little or no pith, no cryptogamous growths 
on the bark, and by their irregular branching. Drugs consisting 
of main-roots, with or without branches, taper from the stem-end 
to the tips of the roots or branches, as the case may be. 

When a root has a thick head to which the remains of several 
or many stems are attached, such head is called a "caudex, n as 
in dandelion and senega; when such a caudex is present it is 
often a diagnostic feature of the drug. 

Secondary roots from rhizomes are of nearly uniform diameter 
and seldom branch, and have but very few and small fibrous 
rootlets ; when rhizomes come into trade with their roots attached 
the latter are called "rootlets." 

The microscopical structure of roots is similar to that of stems, 
and has already been described. 

We group roots as follows: 

'Mono-cotyledonous 16 

fthin bark 17 
| with ducts 18 
[without ducts 19 

[ | with ducts 20 

Flesh 7 [without ducts 21 

The ducts here referred to are oil, resin, or latex-ducts or spaces, 
or, in some cases, even large special cells. 



GROUP XVI 

Mono-cotyledonous Roots 

Only two mono-cotyledonous or endogenous roots are used as 
drugs ; Sarsaparilla and Vetivert. Both of these drugs are rootlets 
from rhizomes, and are therefore of uniform diameter throughout. 

Very long, about 4 to 5 mm. thick; brownish Sarsaparilla 

Thin and slender, about 15 to 20 cm. long, and about 1 mm. thick. .Vetiveria 

Sarsaparilla 

N. Sarsaparilla. — 0. Root of Smilax officinalis, S. medica, S. 
papyracea, and of other undetermined species of Smilax; Liliacece. 
— H. Mexico, Central America and Brazil; also cultivated in 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 163 

Jamaica. — D. Slender roots, often over two meters long, about 
4 to 5 millimeters thick, cylindrical, longitudinally furrowed 
or wrinkled, and breaking with an abrupt, sometimes mealy, 
sometimes horny fracture ; externally grayish-brown or reddish- 
broAvn; internally white and mealy or horny; nearly or quite 
inodorous, and with a slightly mucilaginous, at first bitter and 
afterwards also acrid taste. — C. The active constituent is va- 
riously known as parillin, smilacin, salseparin, parillinic acid, 
etc. — U. Generally reputed to be alterative, and popularly much 
esteemed as a " blood-purifier" but probably of little or no real 
medicinal value. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best given in the form 
of fluid extract or syrup. 

Sarsaparillas are generally classified as: 1, mealy sarsaparillas, 
in which the parenchyma cells most frequently contain unaltered 
starch grains; and 2, non-mealy sarsaparillas, in which altered 
starch in the form of a pasty mass preponderates in the parenchyma 
cells. This classification does not seem to have much scientific 
merit, pharmacognostically or otherwise, except in so far that a 
mealy or starchy sarsaparilla — be it Honduras, Para, Mexican or 
Jamaica — is probably a sounder drug than a non-mealy one. It 
is not improbable that all sarsaparillas would be mealy if gathered 
at the right season, or if collected and cured with proper care ; or 
it may be that the roots are non-mealy only in those parts which 
are exposed or covered by only a thin layer of earth in the grow- 
ing plant, as the portions nearest the "chump" (rhizome) are al- 
most always non-mealy and shriveled, while the ends of 
the roots, even in non-mealy kinds, are usually plump and mealy. 
Non-mealy sarsaparillas, which include Mexican and Jamaica 
varieties, are thin shriveled, deeply wrinkled,- with less unaltered 
starch grains, and often horny on fracture. 

Para Sarsaparilla (also called Brazilian, Rio, Rio Negro, or 
Lisbon) : The roots without the chumps, cut to even lengths and 
wrapped in handsome bundles, as shown in Figs. 110 and 113 ; 
these bundles are about one to one and one-half meters in length, 
and twenty-five to thirty-five centimeters thick, but this variety is 
not often used, although it is considered to be the best. Guatemala 
sarsaparilla is a variety of Brazilian sarsaparilla which comes into 
trade in smaller and looser bundles than the last mentioned; and 



164 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Guayaquil sarsaparilla is still another variety of the Brazilian drug 
which comes in bales, without being put up in bundles. 

Honduras Sarsaparilla (Fig. I'll) is considered by many to 




Fig. 110. 



Fig. 111. 



Fig. 112. 



be fully equal if not superior to Rio sarsaparilla, and it is highly 
esteemed in this country. It comes into trade in bundles about 
sixty-five centimeters to nearly one meter long, and from ten to 
fifteen centimeters thick, and of the form as shown in the draw- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 165 

ing, although they are often more loosely wrapped. Sometimes 
the bundles consist of roots only; sometimes the chumps remain 
attached ; and sometimes the interior of the bundle is filled with 
pieces of the chumps chopped up and carefully hidden by the 
roots which are wrapped around them, which of course constitutes 
an adulteration. This variety is plump, little wrinkled, and of a 
brown color, and it has more small rootlets attached to the roots 
than in Rio sarsaparilla. 

Mexican Sarsaparilla (Fig. 112) comes into trade in bales 
containing about one hundred kilos. The roots are always attached 
to the caudex or chump, as represented in the drawing, and often 
quite long ends of stems remain and a mass of earth or clay adheres 
to the chump, thus materially adding to the weight. This kind of 
sarsaparilla is deeply wrinkled, and of a grayish-brown color. Mex- 




Fig. 113. 

ican sarsaparilla is sometimes also called Vera Cruz sarsaparilla; 
and Caracas sarsaparilla is also but a variety of the Mexican. 

Jamaica Sarsaparilla is so little used in this country that it 
needs but little mention. It comes in small, loosely wrapped bun- 
dles, and is reddish-brown with numerous small rootlets which be- 
set the roots and which give to this variety the descriptive name 
of "bearded" sarsaparilla. 

The Pharmacopoeia (viii), speaking of all kinds of sarsaparilla, 
directs that "the thick, woody, knotty rhizome, if present, should 
be removed;" it is probable that the rhizome is at least equally 
as valuable as the roots, and in China root (the rhizome of Smilax 
China) the rhizome alone is used and the roots are rejected; the 
stems and adhering earth should be considered as adulterations, 
but the rhizome part is equally as valuable as the roots and should 
not be directed to be thrown away, especially as the concurrence 



166 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



of most authorities is to the effect that all parts are medicinally 
nearly or quite worthless. 

The microscopical structure is similar in all varieties of sar- 
saparilla. "When a section of a dry root is cut the circumference 
is seen to be deeply indented, but when the roots are soaked for 
making sections to be examined by transmitted light, the roots 
become round and plump; the sections illustrated in some works 
are wrong because they represent dry sections in outline but 
with the details which can be only seen in thin sections which have 
been cleared and which are examined by transmitted light, and 




Fig. 114. 



which are round. A segment of a section of Caracas sarsaparilla is 
represented in Fig. 114, from which the whole section may be 
readily imagined. The outer portion consists of a cuticle, and at 
places which were at the bottom of the wrinkles in the dry drug 
epidermal hairs are often attached to this cuticle; immediately 
below the cuticle is a more or less thick layer of sclerenchymatous 
cells, and inside of this a layer of parenchyma of considerable 
thickness containing more or less starch according to the variety 
under examination ; and to the left of the segment of the section 
a portion of this parenchyma is shown more highly magnified. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



167 



Then comes a layer of cells forming* the nucleus sheath, a few of 
which are seen enlarged to the right of our drawing; within this 
nucleus sheath the fibro-vascular bundles are crowded into a 
continuous circle of wood, and the central portion within this woody 
layer consists of a pith similar in structure to the parenchyma out- 




Fig. 117. 

side of the nucleus sheath. The portion outside of the nucleus 
sheath is sometimes called the "cortical layer," but this term is 
misleading as it suggests a "bark," which, as we have already 
learned, does not exist in endogenous stem or root structures. 

According to Schleiden sarsaparillas growing south of ten de- 
grees north latitude have an inner parenchyma or pith which is 



168 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

from three to eight times as thick as the woody layer, as is seen in 
Fig. 115, which represents Rio sarsaparilla ; and sarsaparillas 
growing north of the same line have a pith which is at most only 
one and one-half to two times the thickness of the woody layer, as 
is shown in Fig. 116, which shows Honduras sarsaparilla. 

The peculiar thickening of the subcuticular portion and of the 
nucleus sheath affords additional means of identifying the dif- 
ferent varieties of sarsaparilla, but we cannot enter into detail 
of this kind, but must be content with showing these parts from 
two varieties only. The upper drawings (Fig. 117) represent the 
subcuticular cells from Vera Cruz sarsaparilla on the left, and of 
Honduras sarsaparilla on the right, while immediately below each 
is a drawing of a few cells of the nucleus sheath of the same va- 
rieties. The best test of the value of sarsaparilla is in the fresh- 
ness and plumpness of the drug, and in the acridity of the taste. 

Vetiveria. 

N. Vetivert, Radix Ivarancusae. — 0. The rootlets of Andro- 
pogon muricatus; Graminacece. — H. East India. — D. Slender, 
tough, string-like rootlets, about fifteen to twenty centimeters 




Fig. 118. 



long and one millimeter thick, some with and some without 
smaller fibrous branchlets; yellowish-brown; somewhat waxy on 
fracture; the section (Fig. 118) showing large air passages in 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 169 

the outer portion, with some resin cells, and a bright-yellow 
wood portion which contains about eighteen large ducts in a 
circle; aromatic and balsamic. — C. Resin and volatile oil. — U. 
Used altogether in the manufacture of perfumery, especially as 
an ingredient of sachet powders ; sometimes sold in bundles tied 
with strings or ribbons, the whole bundles to be used as sachets. 



GROUP XVII 

Woody Exogenous Roots with Thin Bark 

In woody di-cotyledonous or exogenous roots the wood forms a 
complete, rigid, firm and hard wood-cylinder, which can be sep- 
arated more or less readily from the bark; with thin bark are 
those in which the bark is considerably less thick than the wood, 
often only one-sixth or one-eighth as thick as the latter. 

Brown or purplish -brown; wood tough Krameria. 

Blackish-brown and warty; wood in irregular circles or rings. . Pareira. 

Wood firm and yellow; taste very sweet Glycyrrhiza. 

Yellowish-brown; tough, yellowish wood G-elsemium. 

Large grayish-brown; often with rootlets braided Methysticum. 

Thin pale-brown bark, often scaling off and showing white 

wood Hydrangea. 

Krameria 

N. Krameria, Rhatany. — 0. The root of Krameria triandra 
and K. Ixina; Polygalacece. — H. South America. — D. Two kinds 
of rhatany are common in the trade, and either may be used 
when this drug is prescribed: Peruvian or Payta rhatany (K. 
triandra) from Peru and Bolivia, and Savanilla rhatany (K. Ixina 
and K. argentea) from New Granada and Brazil. The drawing 
(Fig. 119) shows Peruvian rhatany somewhat reduced in size; 
it is from one to three centimeters thick, with a knotty several- 
headed caudex, and is branched below ; bark irregularly fissured, 
more or less rough, externally blackish-brown or dark reddish-brown, 
coarsely fibrous. The wood is lighter red-brown, tough, and in the 
thicker pieces shows heartwood of a darker color; this is shown in 
the left-hand drawing of a section of the thick root, the accom- 
panying smaller section being that of a root branch. The bark is 



170 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



very astringent, but the wood is almost tasteless; owing to the 
greater proportion of bark in the smaller roots, as indicated in 
the section, the drug is valuable in direct ratio as the thicker 
pieces are rarer. Savanilla rhatany is less knotty or branched, 
shorter and more chocolate or purplish-brown, with scattered 
transverse fissures: the bark is more brittle than that of Peru- 
vian rhatany, and proportionately thicker, as/ shown in the 
right-hand drawing of a section, so that this variety really be- 




Fig. 119. 



longs in Group XIX, but is spoken of here for convenience. — 
C. About twenty per cent of kramerio-tannic acid, red coloring 
matter,, etc. — U. Astringent, useful in chronic diarrhoeas, etc. 
Dose: 0.5 to 2 graniSj preferably in form of fluid extract. 



Pareira 

N. Pareira, Pareira Brava. — 0. The roots of Chondodendron 
tornentosum; Menispermacece. — H. Brazil and Peru. — D. Pieces 
from a decimeter to a meter or more long, but generally cut into 
lengths of about ten to fifteen centimeters; varying in thickness 
from one or two to fifteen centimeters; cylindrical or irregular 
on transverse section; often tortuous; externally blackish- 
brown, with transverse ridges or warts and longitudinal furrows ; 
internally pale-browm with a waxy luster when freshly cut; in- 
odorous; taste bitter. The illustrations show the whole drug 
and its section in natural size (Fig. 120; upper right-hand draw- 
ing); the bark is thin and there is no pith; the wood is arranged 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



171 



in several circles which sometimes are very irregular; at the ends 
of the pieces the tongh and separated bundles often project, as 
shown in the drawing. — C. Pelosine, identical with bebeerine. — 
U. Alterative diuretic, useful in cystitis and pyelitis, etc. Dose: 
2 to 5 grams, best given in form of fluid extract. 

The books mention several other roots which are used as ad- 
mixtures or substitutions, but the genuine is so characteristic 




Fig. 120. 



that other substances are readily recognized. The most com- 
mon one of these false pareiras comes in heavy pieces showing 
the structure as in the lower right-hand drawing (Fig. 120) ; 
it is interesting mainly on account of the spurious rings, or some- 
times even spirals (sp), which are sometimes found in woods of 
tropical growth. Pieces of pareira having a bright yellow color, 
or the woody portion of which is grayish, hard and nearly taste- 
less, should be rejected. 



172 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Glycyrrhiza 



N. Liquorice root. — 0. Root of Glycyrrhiza glabra and G. glabra, 
var. glandulifera; Legaminosce. — H. Native in Southern Europe 
and Western Asia, and cultivated in England, France and Ger- 
many. — D. Cylindrical, tough, pliable pieces, up to one meter 
long, and from five to twenty-five millimeters thick; externally 
grayish-brown, warty, and with longitudinal wrinkles ; internally 
yellowish; with thin bark in the thicker pieces but proportionately 




Fig. 121. 



thick bark in thin pieces, no pith, wood in narrow bundles, and 
medullary rays linear, both bast and medullary wedges extend- 
ing through the greater part of the bark ; nearly inodorous ; taste 
sweet, mucilaginous and someAvhat acrid. In the stolons or un- 
derground stems which are sometimes present, there is a thin 
pith. — C. About six per cent of the peculiar principle glycyr- 
rhizin, considered to be an ammonium salt with glycyrrhizic 
acid. — U. Expectorant and demulcent; mainly used as an ex- 
cipient to mask the unpleasant tastes of other substances. Dose: 
Ad libitum. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 173 

Fig. 121 shows a segment of a section in the field of vision 
of the microscope, enlarged at the rate indicated by the scale 
which shows one millimeter divided into fifths of a millimeter. 
The piece from which this section was made was therefore a 
quite small one, and the bark was comparatively thick; the rela- 
tion of the different parts to each other is clearly shown, as 
well as the peculiarity that growth is often excentric. 

Spanish, Italian, German and Turkish liquorice roots are all 
obtained from G. glabra, and correspond to the above description. 
The retail pharmacist generally buys the root cut in regular straight 
lengths and tied in bundles with wires, the crooked pieces and cut 
ends being consumed in manufacture. 

The Russian liquorice root (from G. gl. var. glandulifera, or 
G. echinata) is in thicker pieces, paler yellow color and often with 
the corky layer removed by scraping; it has a less sweet taste, 
sometimes even having a bitter by-taste. It makes a fine looking 
powder, but it is inferior to the other variety for all other pur- 
poses for which liquorice root is employed. 

Only a very small proportion of all the liquorice root imported 
is used in pharmacy, the bulk being consumed in the manufacture 
of chewing tobacco. 

Gelsemium 

N. Gelsemium, Yellow Jasmine. — 0. The rhizomes and roots of 
Gelsemium sempervirens; Loganiacece. — H. Southern United 
States. — D. Thick, branched rhizomes and roots, cut into short 
lengths and irregular pieces, which are sometimes split, mostly 
from five to fifteen millimeters thick, but occasionally to three 
or even more centimeters thick; the rhizomes are thicker than 
the roots, but being cut they are not readily recognizable as 
rhizomes and the drug is for this reason classed under Roots; 
externally light yellowish-brown, with purplish longitudinal lines 
and furrows and occasional transverse fissures; internally pale 
yellowish; bark closely adherent to the wood, thin, with silky 
bast fibers; wood porous, tough, breaking with a splintery frac- 
ture, and showing lighter colored radiating medullary rays; the 
rhizome has a thin pith, the roots have none ; odor feeble, some- 
what narcotic; taste bitterish. The drawing (Fig. 122) shows a 



174 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



large piece of root in natural size, and the section is that of a 
small root examined by reflected light after soaking, and magni- 
fied five diameters. The furrows in the dry roots are caused by 
a shrinkage of the bark, determined by the bundles within, and 
the purplish color is due to the color of the external layers of 




Fig. 122. 



cork which have that color, and which remain in the depression 
of the furrows but are apt to be rubbed off elsewhere.— C. An 
alkaloid, gelsemine. — U. Mainly in nerve affections of a neuralgic 
character; also as a depressant and sedative. Dose: 0.1 to 0.5 
gram, in tincture or fluid extract. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 175 

In over-doses gelsemium is poisonous; antidotal treatment con- 
sists in prompt evacuation of the stomach, the administration of 
diffusible stimulants, application of artificial warmth, electricity 
and artificial respiration. Digitalis and belladonna are physio- 
logical antidotes. 

Methysticum 

N. Kava, Ava Kava, Kava Kava. — 0. Roots of Piper Methysti- 
cum; Piperacece. — H. Sandwich and other Pacific Islands. — D. 
Large, more or less spongy roots, sometimes cut in pieces, gen- 




Fig. 123. 

erally with branches, the latter often braided and sometimes sep- 
arate from the large roots; grayish-brown externally, internally 
pale-yelloAvish, or yellowish- white; bark thin, often chipped off 
in flakes showing a characteristic network of yellowish-white 
bundles underneath, as shown in the drawing to the right; por- 
ous, frequently hollow, sometimes worm-eaten; odor somewhat 
fragrant; taste pungent, slightly aromatic, astringent and bitter. 
Fig. 123 shows a root about one-fourth linear size. — C. About 
two per cent resin, some volatile oil, kavahin, etc. — U. Stimulant, 
diuretic, diaphoretic, sialagogue, etc. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best in 
fluid extract. 



176 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Hydrangea 

N. Hydrangea, Seven Barks. — 0. Roots of Hydrangea arhores- 
cens; Saxifragacece. — H. United States, from the lakes south- 
ward. — D. Irregular, knotty head, two or more centimeters thick, 
root branches finger-thick or less, much bent and somewhat 
tuberculous; usually cut into short pieces; thin pale-broAvn bark 




Fig. 124. 



which occasionally peels off in spots, exposing the wood; wood 
white and tough, breaking with a splintery fracture; odor none; 
taste insipid and sweetish, afterwards somewhat pungent. Hy- 
drangea is shown in natural size in the drawings. — C. A crystal- 
line glucoside, resin, etc. — U. Lithontriptic. Dose 2 to 5 grams, 
best in fluid extract. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 177 

GROUP XVIII 

Woody Roots; Thick Bark with Ducts 

In di-cotyledonous or exogenous roots with thick bark the bark 
is often nearly as thick as the wood from the center outwards, or 
sometimes even as thick as the whole wood-cylinder. Such roots 
sometimes have oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces or large cells 
in the middle bark, and when this is the case they belong to this 
group. Only three are of any importance; the wood in these is 
not very firm, but it often is tough and breaks separately from 
the bark; Maisch calls them fleshy roots. 

Long roots, gray bark about one-fourth of di- 
ameter of the dry root Apocynum Cannabinum. 

Similar to above, but thinner, brown, and bark 

about one-sixth of entire thickness Apocynum Androssemifoliiun. 

Short brownish-gray sections, wood spongy and 
bark easily separable and flaring at cut 
ends Stillingia. 

Apocynum Cannabinum 

N. Apocynum, Canadian Hemp, Black Indian Hemp. — 0. 
Apocynum cannabinum; Apocynacece. — H. United States. — D. 
Long, cylindrical, sometimes branched roots, three to twelve milli- 
meters thick, average thickness being about seven millimeters; 
bark thick, about one-fourth of the diameter of the dried root, 
or one-third of the diameter of a root after soaking in water ; 
externally gray, sometimes with a faint brownish tint, with blunt 
longitudinal wrinkles and deep transverse fissures extending 
through the bark to the wood; in section the bark of small pieces 
of root is white or lighter in color than the wood, but in old pieces 
it is darker, even brown and sometimes resinous ; wood yellowish, 
porous, breaking with an abrupt fracture when the drug is thor- 
oughly dry or bending before breaking when not dry ; neither pith 
nor central cavity ; inodorous ; taste bitter and disagreeable. — 
C. An amorphous resin and a glucoside. — U. In small doses di- 
uretic ; in larger doses emetico-cathartic ; useful for removal of 
dropsical fluids. Dose: 0.5, even to 2 grams as an emetic, best 
given in fluid extract. 



178 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



The drawings in Fig. 125 show two pieces (to the right) of 
root and a piece (above, to the left) of the stem, all natural size; 
the stem, which is often present, is brown, has a pith or central 
cavity, and often shows buds (marked by asterisks) ; it has no 




Fig. 125. 



transverse fissures, the bark is thin, wood tough; sometimes 
it is split lengthwise; the taste is slight. 

The drawings of sections show the dry- root in section (a) in 
natural size, the root after soaking in water and examined by re- 




flected light, enlarged (b), and a section of the latter after clear- 
ing with solution of potassium hydroxide (c), also enlarged, which 
shows the resin ducts in the bark. 



Apocynum Androssemifolium 

H. Bitter Root, Dogs-bane. — 0. The root of Apocynum andro- 
scemifolium; Apocynacece. — H. United States. — D. Rarely ex- 
ceeding ten centimeters long, and from three to twelve milli- 
meters thick, the average thickness being about four or five mil- 
limeters; externally rusty reddish-brown, the thick bark deeply 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



179 



and sharply wrinkled longitudinally, and with transverse fis- 
sures that extend through the bark to the wood; bark about one- 
sixth the total diameter in the dry root, or nearly one-third the 
diameter in the soaked root; wood white, porous and brittle, 
breaking with an abrupt fracture ; inodorous ; taste very bitter.— 
C. Probably similar to those of A. can nab in urn. — U. Emetico- 




Fig. 127. 

cathartic, used in hepatic derangements; action probably like 
that of A. eannabinum. Dose: 0.5, even to 2 grams as an emetic, 
best in fluid extract. 

The stem, pieces of which are generally present, is recognized 
by its large pith or central cavity, its tough wood which is often 
split lengthwise, and the buds attached; some of the buds are 




Fig. 128. 



marked with asterisks in the drawing. The drawings show 
stem (upper) and root (lower) in natural size. 

In the drawings of sections (Fig. 128) a represents that of the 
dry root; b that of a root after being soaked in water, examined 
with a lens by reflected light ; and c is a section of stem, also after 
being soaked, and by reflected light, enlarged. 



180 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



The two varieties of Apocynum are frequently mixed; the dif- 
ferences are here noted side by side. 



A. androscemifolmm. 

Diameter averages about 
four to five millimeters, 
although as large and as 
small pieces as any of A. 
cannabinum can be found. 

Thickness of bark about 
one-sixth of the entire 
diameter of the dry drug. 

Externally reddish-brown. 

Vessels less numerous and 
nearly all in one circle 
near the outer edge of 
the wood cylinder, only 
a few being scattered 
farther within. 

It is probable that the actions of the two drugs are identical, 
so that a careful differential diagnosis between them is of impor- 
tance only because of the absolute necessity in medicine of call- 
ing each drug by its own proper name, without which no reliable 
knowledge of pharmaco-dynamics could exist. 



A. cannabimim. 
Diameter averages about 
seven millimeters. 



Thickness of bark about 
one-fourth of the entire 
diameter of the dry drug. 

Externally gray. 

Vessels in woody portion 
more or less concentri- 
cally arranged. 



Stillingla 

N. Stillingia, Queen's Eoot. — 0. The root of Stillingia sylvatica; 
Euphorbiacew. — H. Southern United States. — D. The fresh root 




Fig. 129. 



is large, thick, tapering, little branched, tough and fibrous. The 
drug consists of the root chopped into pieces about two to five 
centimeters long, wrinkled, brownish-gray externally and some- 
what lighter colored within; bark thick, with numerous yellow- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 181 

ish-brown resin-cells, and but few bast fibers, and a soft, porous, 
although fibrous wood; in drying the bark shrinks lengthwise 
so that it flares at the cut ends and often separates partly or 
completely from the slightly projecting wood, although the lat- 
ter usually remains inclosed; taste bitter, acrid and pungent, 
and odor peculiar and disagreeable. — C. Resin and probably a 
glucoside (or alkaloid?); no full analysis has been made. — U. 
Alterative. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. 



GROUP XIX 

Differs from the last group in the roots having no oil, resin 
or latex ducts, spaces or large cells. 

Purplish-brown, wood tough, bark thick Kramerla 

Small roots, blackish-brown, with thick annular bark Ipecacuanha 

Grayish-brown to dark brown, more or less contorted. Cartagena Ipecacuanha 

Krameria 

The bark of Krameria Ixina belongs in this group, but it has al- 
ready been described in connection with Peruvian Rhatany, under 
Group XVII, to which the reader is referred. 

Ipecacuanha 

N. Ipecacuanha, Ipecac; known in the trade as Brazilian or Rio 
Ipecac. — 0. The roots of Cephaelis Ipecacuanha; Rubiaceoe. — 
H. Brazil. — D. The roots come into trade in pieces up to ten 
centimeters long, and from four to five millimeters thick ; seldom 
branched, often contorted; externally grayish-brown or black- 
ish; bark thick, closely and irregularly annulated and often 
transversely fissured, giving the drug the appearance as in the 
drawing, which is .natural size; bark easily separable from the 
thin, tough, whitish wood cylinder; odor peculiar, nauseous, but 
slight, and taste bitterish, acrid and nauseating. — C. Emetine, 
and Cephaeline ; the drug should not contain less than 1.75 per 
cent ether-soluble alkaloids. — U. In large doses emetic, in 
small doses expectorant and diaphoretic. Dose: 0.03 to 0.05 
gram; as an emetic 1 to 2 grams. 



182 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Stems, which are sometimes admixed, may be recognized by 
the thin and smooth bark which is not annulated. Good ipecac 
consists of about eighty per cent of bark by weight. When ipecac 
is sound and free from mouldiness, its quality is proportionate 
to the thickness of the bark and the thinness of the ligneous 
portion. The illustrations (Fig. 130) show good ipecac, whole, 
and a section of same magnified at the rate shown by the scale 
which is one millimeter divided into fifths. It is difficult to 
clear the cells of their contents, so that most of them remain 
filled with altered cell-contents, even after quite long macera- 
tion in the clearing solutions. 







Fig. 130. 



The books mention various spurious ipecacs, but as they are not 
found in our markets, it is not necessary to mention them here. 

Cartegena Ipecac is obtained from Cephaelis Acuminata; Bu- 
biacece. It occurs in cylindrical or somewhat fusiform, more or 
less contorted pieces, up to 12 cm. in length and from 4 to 7 
mm. in thickness ; grayish-brown ; not as markedly annulate as Rio 
Ipecac; bark about 2 mm. thick, dark-brown, and easily separated 
from the light-brown wood ; stems up to 10 cm. long and 2 to 3 mm. 
thick, cylindrical somewhat zig-zag, grayish-brown externally with 
bark thin and longitudinally wrinkled. — C. and U. like those of 
Rio Ipecac. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 183 

FLESHY ROOTS 

In fleshy roots the fibro-vascular bundles are either small and 
widely separated so that there is no wood-cylinder, or the prosen- 
chyma of the bundles is little or not at all lignified, so that al- 
though there may appear to be a wood-cylinder and cambium 
zone, all the tissues are of nearly the same degree of softness, 
and so intimately united that the bark will not separate from the 
wood on drying or in the fresh condition; there is, however, no 
rigid demarcation between woody and fleshy roots, so that roots 
which are classed as fleshy by some authors are classed as woody 
by others. Besides, just as in radishes a younger root may be 
succulent and tender, and an older root be hard and woody and 
unfit for eating, so, in drugs, the age of the gathered root may 
also determine its degree of woodiness. However, there is one 
characteristic which we can use as a distinguishing feature, that 
in woody roots the bark sometimes separates from the wood 
while in fleshy roots it does not. 

Owing to the fact that fleshy roots are made up mainly of 
succulent parenchyma, which decreases very much in bulk on 
drying and the further fact that the longitudinal bundles offer 
more resistance to contraction during drying than is offered to 
contraction in the transverse direction, most fleshy roots show 
deep longitudinal wrinkles, although some also show less marked 
transverse wrinkles. The cambium zone, consisting of more deli- 
cate cells, often oxidizes readily and becomes darker-colored 
than the other tissues, especially in fleshy roots that are cut into 
sections before drying, and thus it forms a dark line which some- 
times becomes a diagnostic feature. Similarly, drying may cause 
a marked contrast between the colors of the wood rays and me- 
dullary rays, sometimes the one, sometimes the other being the 
darker-colored, and this, too, is of value in recognizing the indi- 
vidual drugs. 

We divide fleshy roots into two groups. Group XX, consist- 
ing of fleshy roots with latex, oil or resin ducts, cells or spaces, 
and Group XXI, fleshy roots without such ducts. 



184 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

GROUP XX 

Fleshy Roots with Ducts 

The oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces or large cells referred to 
are mainly found in the parenchyma of the inner and middle 
bark; sometimes also in the inner parts of the root, or in the bast 
portion of the fibro-vascular bundles, or in the medullary rays 
and pith. 

Hard, tuberous, irregularly round or pear-shaped, dark brown. . Jalapa. 

With caudex, branched, section marked with concentric lines. . Taraxacum. 

With caudex, branched, section marked with radiating lines. . Cichorium. 

Hard, yellowish-brown or gray, bark closely tuberculated. . . . Asclepias. 

Tough, porous sections with irregular bundles Sumbul. 

Light grayish-brown, branched root, deeply wrinkled Angelica. 

Fusiform, yellowish, annulate, often bifid Panax. 

Fusiform, dark grayish-brown, annulate above, deeply 

wrinkled Pyrethrum. 

Thick, round root with long branches, or sometimes in trans- 
verse or longitudinal sections Inula. 

Long, spongy or flexible, light-colored, usually split lengthwise. Levisticum. 

Dark brown, knotty, flattened, with root-scars and transverse 

rings , Imperatoria. 

Long, slender, yellowish-white, flexible, usually split length- 
wise Petroselinum. 

Long, yellowish-brown, annulate above, wrinkled and warty 

below Pimpinella. 

Jalapa. 

N. Jalap. — 0. The tuberous root of Ipomcea Jalapa (Exogonium 
purga) ; Convolvulacece. — H. Mexico. — D. Irregularly rounded, 
ovate or pear-shaped, as in the drawing, more or less deeply 
wrinkled and the larger roots incised, dark brown with lighter- 
colored transverse warts or ridges, very hard and compact, break- 
ing with an abrupt, horny and somewhat resinous fracture; in- 
ternally pale grayish-brown; consists mainly of starchy paren- 
chyma with large resin-cells arranged in a dense layer under the 
thin bark and in wavy concentric circles which are darker than 
the starch-containing portions, as shown in the drawing of a sec- 
tion ; taste -sweetish, acrid and disagreeable and odor sweetish 
and nauseous. — C. Not less than 7 per cent of resin of which not 
over one-tenth should be soluble in ether. Formerly jalap yield- 



HANDBOOK OF PHAEMACOGNOSY 



185 



ing 12 to 20 per cent of resin was not unusual, but more careless 
modes of gathering have reduced the grade of available drug. — 
U. Hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 0.5 to 1.5 grams. Jalap is said 
to come into the market occasionally in longitudinal or trans- 
verse slices, but this is certainly quite rarely the case. 

Jalap must be sound, heavy and hard; soft and sticky, or mealy 
and light-colored, or woody tubers should be rejected. False 
jalaps are excluded by the description just given. Tampico 
Jalap resembles true jalap, but is of more irregular form without 
the transverse ridges or warts, light in weight, shriveled, and con- 




Fig. 131. 



tains a resin which is almost entirely soluble in ether. Male 
Jalap is spindle-shaped, light and woody, with a resin that is 
wholly soluble in ether. Mechoaccan Jalap usually comes cut 
into slices or cubes, and is light-colored or almost Avhitish, mealy 
and with very little resin. 

Genuine jalap is sometimes deprived of its resin by maceration 
in a solvent, and then dried; such jalap is darker-colored through- 
out, more .wrinkled, and more or less glossy externally. Worm- 
eaten jalap is unfit for all purposes but making resin of jalap, 
for which latter purpose it is still valuable, because the insects 



186 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



which attack it destroy only the cells containing starch, so that 
the more worm-eaten the drug, the greater will be the proportion- 
ate yield of resin. 

Taraxacum 

N. Dandelion. — 0. Root of Taraxacum officinale gathered in 
autumn; Compositce. — H. Europe and United States. — D. The 
drug consists of a several-headed caudex with a cylindrical or 
somewhat tapering and slightly branched root, ten to fifteen 
centimeters long and up to ten millimeters thick and with the cau- 
dex sometimes up to twenty-five millimeters in diameter; usually 




Fig. 132. 

much shrunken and with deep longitudinal wrinkles; externally 
dark brown and internally light gray or whitish ; fracture abrupt, 
brittle, and somewhat resinous, showing a thin yellowish central 
wood-cylinder, consisting of reticulated and dotted ducts, non-lig- 
nified prosenchyma and parenchyma, and a thick whitish bark 
marked with numerous grayish-broAvn circles of latex duets; lit- 
tle or no odor, and a sweetish-bitter and mucilaginous taste. — 
C. Taraxacin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic, alterative, and cholagogue. 
Dose: 2 to 10 grams. 

Dandelion is frequently much discolored, damaged by in- 
sects, mouldy or otherwise worthless. It should be perfectly 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 187 

sound and recently dried to be of best value. Many lots of 
dandelion consist of small and apparently immature roots, hav- 
ing but little resemblance to dandelion as it should appear, but 
even in these roots the concentric markings are very plain; the 
section is drawn from a medium-sized root, the scale being one 
millimeter divided into fifths. The two drawings of cells show 
the parenchyma and laticiferous ducts in longitudinal and trans- 
verse sections. 

Chicory (Cichorium, from Cichorium Intybus; Composites) 
is sometimes substituted for or added to dandelion, which it very 
closely resembles in its outward appearance ; the transverse section, 
however offers a ready means for distinguishing between the two 
drugs, chicory having the laticiferous vessels arranged in radiat- 
ing lines in the bark, instead of in concentric circles, as in dande- 



Fig. 133. 

lion. Only the wild-grown chicory is used as a substitute for 
dandelion, and it is generally lighter-colored than dandelion; 
the cultivated chicory, which is used as an adulterant or a sub- 
stitute for coffee, etc., is shorter and more plump than dandelion 
and not easily mistaken for it, The scale is the same as in 
dandelion. 

Asclepias 

N. Asclepias; Pleurisy Root, — 0. The root of Asclepias tuber- 
osa; Asclepiaclacece. — H. United States, near Atlantic Coast. — 
D. Large, cylindrical, sometimes spindle-shaped roots, usually cut 
into lengths of from five to fifteen centimeters, and two or more 
centimeters thick; externally orange-brown when fresh, gray 
when old, internally whitish; breaks with a tough and uneven 



188 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



fracture showing the bark in two layers; the external bark 
nodulated in a peculiar manner, as shown in the drawing, af- 
fording a diagnostic feature, the inner bark thin, whitish and 
with but few ducts, and the wood porous, yellowish, and with 




Fig. 134. 

wide medullary rays; taste bitterish and somewhat acrid, odor 
none. — C. Two resins, fixed and volatile oils, etc. — U. Diaphoretic, 
expectorant and carminative. Dose: Two to five grams, several 
times a day. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



189 



Sumbul 

N. Musk Root. — 0. The root of Ferula Sumbul; Umbelliferce. — 
H. Central and Northeastern Asia. — D. Transverse segments of 
a light, spongy root, from two to ten centimeters thick and two 
to three centimeters long; externally dark brown, annulate and 
sometimes deeply wrinkled longitudinally, and internally whitish, 
with yellowish-brown dots and tangled fibers; taste bitter and 
balsamic, and odor musk-like. — C. Volatile oil, balsamic resin, 
etc. — U. Stimulant, blennorrhetic, and nervine tonic. Dose: 0.5 
to 2 grams. In the East it is also used as perfume and incense. 




Fig. 135. 

The dark markings on the cut ends are due mainly to adhering 
dirt rubbed off from the outer parts ; the illustration shows a 
portion broken away, exposing the clean, whitish tissue within. 



Angelica 

N. Angelica Root. — 0. The root of Archangelica officinalis, col- 
lected in the autumn of the first year; Um'belliferce. — H. Central 
and Northern Europe and Asia. — D. Root five to ten centimeters 
long and two to five centimeters thick; the upper end somewhat 
annulate and with leaf remnants attached; below divided into 
a number of almost cylindrical deeply wrinkled branches; ex- 
ternally grayish-brown; breaks with a short, spongy fracture, 



190 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



showing a thick whitish bark with radiating lines of large resin 
ducts in the bast portions of the bundles, and a yellowish porous 
wood. The illustration shows a root in natural size. The drug 




Fig. 136. 

should not be so dry as to be brittle. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. 
U. Aromatic, stimulant and carminative. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. 



Panax 

N. Ginseng. — 0. The root of Panax quinquefolius; Araliaceai. — 
H. North America south to the mountains of Tennessee and Geor- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



191 



gia. — D. Spindle-shaped, five to ten centimeters long, often bifid 
or with three branches, annulate and longitudinally wrinkled; 
pale yellowish-brown externally, white and mealy within; breaks 
with a short fracture, showing thick bark which contains numer- 
ous resin cells ; taste sweetish and aromatic and odor faint. Ow- 




Fig. 137. 

ing to the high price of ginseng, it is often gathered before fully 
grown, and small specimens like those illustrated are therefore 
most common. — C. A sweet amorphous substance which has been 
named panaquilon, resin, etc. — U. Stimulant tonic; gathered 
mainly for export to China, where it is highl} T prized as an 
aphrodisiac. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. 



Pyrethrum 

N. Pellitory, Roman Pellitory. — 0. The root of Anacyclus Pyre- 
thrum; Compositce. — H. Africa, adjacent to Mediterranean Sea; 




Fig. 138. 

comes into trade mainly from Tunis through Italy. — D. Fleshy, 
simple, fusiform root, from five to ten cm. long and from five 



192 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

to twenty mm. thick, the upper end annulate and sometimes with 
frayed remnants of leaves and stem; deeply wrinkled and dark 
brown externally and grayish-white internally; with abrupt frac- 
ture showing comparatively thin bark, the outer layer of the 
middle bark containing comparatively few but large resin ducts ; 
narrow yellowish wood-bundles and wider and darker-colored 
medullary rays, as shown in the larger drawing of a section of 
a dry root, magnified three diameters; odorless, but with an acrid 
and pungent taste. — C. Acrid resin and fixed oil, etc. — U. Ir- 
ritant, sialagogue, etc. Dose : 2 to 5 grams. 

German Pellitory consists of the roots of Anacyclus officinarum, 
which are simple, nearly straight and filiform, up to fifteen cm. 
long and two to three mm. thick, with frayed leaf and stem rem- 
nants, deeply wrinkled, dark-brown externally, lighter brown 
within, with abrupt fracture, showing two layers separated by 
a darker-colored cambium zone and with numerous resin ducts 
in the bast portion; taste, odor, constituents and uses similar 
to those of Roman Pellitory. The drawings of the sections are 
after Berg, the smaller showing German Pellitory, also magnified 
three diameters. 

Inula 

N. Inula, Elecampane. — 0. The root of Inula Helenium; Com- 
positce. — H. Central and Southern Europe; naturalized and cul- 
tivated in the United States. — D. It is usually described as being 
in transverse or longitudinal sections, the latter with overlap- 
ping bark, as shown in the crescent-shaped section (after Maisch) ; 
I have more frequently found it whole, or at most, cut into two 
or three pieces and rarely longitudinally sliced, so that the 
"overlapping bark" is seldom to be seen. The drug, as I have 
seen it in trade, is shown in natural size in the drawing; it is a 
fleshy root, about two to three cm. thick at the upper end and from 
five to twenty-five cm. long, sometimes whole but often cut into 
two or three pieces, the figure showing the upper end which 
is most characteristic; this end is marked with a cup or funnel- 
shaped stem-scar and with several more or less fusiform heads, 
each having a similar depression. The root either tapers gradu- 
ally to a thin end or it may end rather abruptly in several 
branches, which are generally cut off and come as separate pieces; 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



193 



the lower root-ends or branches taper from about ten mm. to 
a point and are from five to fifteen cm. long, either simple or 
slightly branched, deeply wrinkled longitudinally, flexible in 
damp weather, bnt hard when dry when they break with an ab- 
rupt fracture ; the cut and dried ends of larger pieces show pro- 
jecting concentric and radial lines, while the smaller roots have 
the structure as shown enlarged in the figure of a whole section; 
very rarely a piece may show a tendency to separate at the cam- 
bium zone, which, if more frequent, would make this a woody 
root; externally all parts of the drug, including the cut sur- 




Fig. 139. 

faces, are of a grayish-brown color, but when broken, the in- 
terior appears grayish-white with the resin ducts showing as 
bright yellow, glistening points in the middle and inner bark, 
and in the medullary rays and pith; the odor is faintly aromatic 
and the taste is bitter and pungent. — C. Resin, extractive, etc., 
but no starch. — U. Stimulant, expectorant, diaphoretic and di- 
uretic. Dose: 2 to 10 grams. 



Levisticum. 

N. Lovage. — 0. The root of Levisticum officinale: Umoelliferce. — ■ 
H. Southern and Central Europe; cultivated in Germany. — D. A 
fleshy root, eight to twenty cm. long and up to three to four cm. 
thick, several-headed, annulated at the upper end and divided 
below into several nearly cylindrical flexible branches which are 
about three to six mm. thick, but usually split longitudinally 



194 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



into halves or quarters; deeply wrinkled longitudinally; yellow- 
ish-brown to dark-brown externally and pale-yellowish inter- 
nally; fracture spongy, showing a thick bark with many resin 
ducts and with radiating fissures, and the yellow wood-bundles 
alternating with narrow white medullary rays which also con- 




Fig. 140. 

tain resin ducts; the main root has a pith; odor strong and pene- 
trating and taste sweetish, mucilaginous and acrid. The draw- 
ing is after Berg and shows a section of a dry root enlarged 
three diameters. — C. Resin, volatile oil, bitter extractive, etc. — 
U. Stimulant carminative and emmenagogue. Dose: 0.5 to 2 
grams. 

Imperatoria 

N. Masterwort. — 0. The root of Imperatoria (or Peucedanum) 
Ostruthium; Umoelliferce. — H. Southern and Central Europe. — 




D. Masterwort is sometimes classed as a root, sometimes as a 
rhizome; the upper end is a root stock from which branches pro- 
ceed in the living i)lant at the ends of which buds and new plants 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 195 

are formed, but usually this is but a small part of each piece while 
much the larger part is root ; but the rhizome portion may con- 
stitute so large a proportion of some pieces that they would be 
pronounced to be rhizomes and this drug is therefore also enumer- 
ated among rhizomes (Group XXIX). The illustration gives a 
good idea of the appearance and size of the drug; it is knotty, 
somewhat conical, crowned with leaf remnants, flattened as seen in 
the outline of its section (natural size), marked with transverse rings 
and longitudinal wrinkles and tuberculous root-scars ; from five to 
seven cm. long and about fifteen to thirty mm. wide ; the enlarged 
section shows a circle of numerous small wood-bundles inclosing 
a large pith, and with numerous large resin ducts in the bark 
and pith; the color is grajdsh-brown to blackish-gray externally 
and brownish-yellow to whitish within; odor aromatic and taste 
pungent and bitter. — C. Volatile oil, resin, imperatorin, etc. — 
U. Aromatic stimulant and carminative; seldom used. Dose: 
1 to 2 grams. 

Petroselinum. 

N. Parsley Root. — 0. The root of Petroselinum sativum; Um- 
belliferce. — H. Southern Europe; cultivated in this country. — 
D. A tapering fleshy root, about fifteen cm. long and about twelve 
mm. thick; annulate and transversely wrinkled above and deeply 
wrinkled longitudinally below; wood light-yellow and porous, 




and radiate from the white medullary rays, the bark whitish and 
dotted with resin ducts; color externally brownish-yellow and 
whitish within; odor aromatic and taste peculiar and sweetish. 
The drug, usually consists of the root cut into longitudinal strips, 
which are pale yellowish-white and flexible. The drawing is af- 
ter Maisch, and shows a section of a root enlarged three diam- 



196 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

eters. — C. Volatile oil, etc. — U. Carminative and diuretic. Dose: 
2 to 5 grams. 

Pimpinella 

N. Pimpernel. — 0. The root of Pimpinella Saxifraga; Vmbelli- 
ferce. — H. Central Europe. — D. A simple fleshy root, sometimes 
several-headed, the heads with remains of hollow stems; from 
ten to fifteen cm. long and five to fifteen mm. thick; the upper 
end of the root annulate, the lower part tuberculate or warty, and 
the whole deeply furrowed longitudinally; yellowish-brown or 
ochre-colored externally ; fracture short, abrupt, showing a thick 




Fig. 143. 

white bark with radiating lines of yellowish or reddish resin 
ducts, separated by a darker-colored cambium zone from the 
faintly radiate yellowish wood; in old pieces the bark is often 
torn and fissured within on drying, so that it feels spongy; odor 
peculiar, aromatic and somewhat nauseous, and taste pungent 
and acrid. The drawing of the section is after Berg, and shows 
a section of a dry root enlarged three diameters. — C. Volatile 
oil, resin, etc. — U. Stimulant and sialagogue. Dose: 0.5 to 5 
grams. 

GROUP XXI 

This group consists of fleshy roots with structure similar to 
those of the last group, but without the ducts. 

Conical, blackish-brown, tuberous roots, single or joined 

in pairs Aconitum. 

Slender, light grayish-brown roots, little branched Belladonnae Radix. 

Large, round or plano-convex orange-yellow pieces of 

roots, peeled Rheum. 

Whole, or longitudinally split, dark brown roots, trans- 
versely annulate above Gentiana. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 197 

Several-headed caudex, root branched and keeled, yellow- 
ish-gray, wood not cylindrical Senega. 

Transverse sections, greenish-gray bark, yellowish on cut 

surfaces Calumba. 

Grayish-white transverse sections, hard, with prominent 

radiating and concentric lines Bryonia. 

White roots with cork removed, externally white, mealy 

and fibrous Althaea. 

Longitudinal and transverse sections, with projecting 
white wood-bundles alternating with yellowish-gray 
parenchyma Phytolacca? Radix 

Long, simple, fusiform root, usually partially broken and 

doubled up lengthwise Rumex. 

Brown-black, horny, somewhat contorted roots, often split 

lengthwise Symphytum. 

Long, thin roots, externally rust-brown, internally 

whitish Saponaria. 

Cylindrical, simple, fleshy root, grayish-brown and 

wrinkled Lappa. 

Crowned with leaf bases and covered with a dark purplish 
foliaceous bark easily separable from the yellowish 
wood Alkanna. 

Longitudinal or transverse slices, pale orange-brown Frasera. 

Aconitum 

N. Aconite Root, Monkshood. — 0. The root of Aconitum Napel- 
Ins; Rami n cula cecc. — H. Mountainous parts of Europe and Asia. — 
D. Aconite root is sometimes classed as a tuber, because a small 
portion at the top is a root stock /which, produces a short lateral 
branch, at the end of which a new root and stem is formed; the 
old root ("mother tuber") has a portion of stem adhering while 
the younger, root ("daughter tuber") is crowned with a bud, 
which would form the next season's stem; the two are often at- 
tached to each other in the drug, but also occur separately. The 
bulk of drug is root and the drug is. therefore described under 
this group. The illustration shows the appearance of the root 
(A. N.) in natural size; conical or tapering, ten to twenty mm. 
thick at the top and three to ten cm. long, with either a bud or 
the remains of a stem at the apex, seldom branched, dark brown, 
the root with bud plump, little wrinkled, and whitish within, the 
one with stem remnant more deeply wrinkled and darker, even 
brownish within and sometimes hollow; fracture abrupt, mealy 



198 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



or horny, showing five to eight-rayed star (usually seven-rayed) 
caused by the darker-colored cambium zone which separates the 
thick bark from the pith; odorless, taste at first sweetish, then 
acrid and followed by a tingling numbness, which is persistent 
and disagreeable and the intensity of which has been suggested 
as a good empirical test for the quality of the drug. — C. Acon- 
itine, pseudaconitin, aconine, pseudaconine, picraconitine, etc., 
which together constitute the commercial article which is sold as 




Fig. 144. 



"aconitine." Pure aconitine is a crystalline alkaloid. The drug 
should contain not less than 0.5 per cent of ether-soluble alka- 
loids. — U. Sedative and depressant; very poisonous. Dose of 
aconite root: 0.05 to 0.10 gram, in tincture or fluid extract. 

Antidotes. — Stomach pump or emetics (sulphate of zinc, mus- 
tard, apomorphine); friction of extremities; heart stimulants, as 
digitalis, atropine, or amyl nitrite inhalations; heat applied ex- 
ternally, etc. 

Aconitum Cammarum (A.C. in Fig. 144) is also gathered in 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



199 



Europe; it is only about two cm. long and sub-globular and the 
cambium star seldom more than five-rayed, and less marked than 
in A. Napellus. 

Aconitum Stoerckianum, is characterized by the "mother 
tuber" developing two "daughter tubers," so that it comes in 
triplets ; the cambium zone is not stellate. 

These two varieties are sometimes mixed with the roots of A. 
Napellus, and have the same action. 




Fig. 145. 



Indian Aconite, from A. ferox (A.F. in Fig. 145), called bikh 
or bish, is from five to ten cm. long and about twenty-five mm. 
thick above, conical, brown externally and reddish-brown or brown- 
ish-black internally and breaks with a resinoid fracture. 

Japanese or Chinese Aconite (J.A. in Fig. 145), from A. 
Fischeri, often is napiform, tapering, with a circular or elliptical 
(rarely stellate) pith. 

All of these roots are used for the manufacture of the commer- 
cial "aconitine." 



200 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Belladonnae Radix 



N. Belladonna Root. — 0. The root of Atropa Belladonna; Sol- 
anacece. — H. Central or Southern Europe. — D. The illustration 
shows an old and thick root, with the base of the hollow stem 





Fig. 146. 



attached; the drug consists mainly of the more slender, tapering 
and often nearly cylindrical roots up to twenty-five cm. long 
and from ten to twenty-five mm. thick, externally pale brownish- 
gray with few and shallow longitudinal wrinkles; breaks with 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 201 

an abrupt mealy fracture, the thinner pieces uniformly white 
within, the thicker and older pieces showing a radiating struc- 
ture inside of and near the cambium zone, as shown in the draw- 
ing of a section (enlarged) ; odor little or none, and taste at first 
sweetish, then bitterish and acrid, and followed by dryness of 
the mouth and fauces. — C. Atropine and hyoscyamine ; Belladonna 
root should contain not less than 0.5 per cent of mydriatic alka- 
loids. — U. Anodyne, narcotic; dilates the pupils of the eyes; sup- 
presses the secretions of the salivary and sweat glands ; in medic- 
inal doses it is a valuable stimulant of the respiratory muscles 
and the heart, but in overdoses it is a narcotic poison and paralyzes 
the heart ; externally, as an ingredient of plasters, it is a valuable 
anodyne and anti-neuralgic and the ointment of belladonna is 
applied to the breasts to suppress the secretion of milk. Dose: 
About 0.05 gram. 

"Roots which are tough and woody, breaking with a splintery 
fracture, should be rejected; likewise the hollow stem-bases which 
are sometimes present" (U.S.P.); but this empirical rule will 
sometimes lead to the rejection of a good drug, because a drug 
as here described occasionally assays as high as the drug described 
above, and which usually is the better; no large lot of roots should 
be rejected on its appearance alone; but a quantitative assay 
should be made to determine the quality of the drug. 

(See also Scopola, page 251.) 

Antidotes. — The poisonous effect shows itself by extreme dila- 
tation of the pupils, dryness of the fauces, headache, delirium, 
stupor, paralysis, weak pulse and respiration, and finally death. 
Treatment consists in the use of the stomach pump or emetics, 
opium internally and stimulants when heart failure is threatened. 

Rheum 

N. Rhubarb. — 0. The root of Rheum officinale, Baillon, Rh. 
palmatum, and allied varieties of Rheum; Polygonacece. — H. "West- 
ern and Central China. — D. Cylindrical, conical or irregular, or 
flattish, often plano-convex pieces of root, deprived of the corky 
layer and often of the middle bark, covered externally with an 
orange-yellow powder (from attrition) which when rubbed off 
shows meshes of white, spongy tissue and short, reddish-brown 
or brownish-yellow stria?; compact and hard, breaking with an 



202 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

uneven fracture, the broken surface being whitish and marbled 
or mottled with yellowish-red strias which are sometimes ar- 
ranged in star-shaped spots or clusters; the parenchymatous cells 
are filled with starch or stellate, rosette-shaped crystals of oxalate 
of calcium which feel gritty between the teeth, and the cells of 
the medullary rays are filled with a reddish coloring matter 
which colors the saliva yelloAv ; the odor is peculiar and the taste 
is bitter, disagreeable and slightly astringent.- — C. Two groups 
of glucosides, tanno-glucosides and anthra-glucosides, chrysophanic 
acid, emodin, tannin, etc. — U. Rhubarb is at first purgative, fol- 
lowed afterwards by an astringent action; it is therefore espe- 
cially adapted for use in cases of diarrhoeas caused by irritating 
substances in the intestines, such as indigestible food, etc. Dose: 
0.3 to 1.5 grams. 

The rhubarb described above is called Chinese, Shensi or East 
Indian Rhubarb. 

Russian Rhubarb is no longer found in the trade and is only 
of historical interest. It therefore needs no description here. 

Rhapontic Rhubarb, also called Crimean Rhubarb, is the root 
of Rheum rhaponticum, which is a native of Western Asia, but is 
now also cultivated in Europe and in the . United States, being 
known here as "pie plant." When the root is found in the 
trade it is usually in slender cylindrical pieces of an orange- 
red color, about ten to twelve cm. long and two cm. thick, re- 
sembling the official rhubarb in color, odor and taste, but being 
more astringent and mucilaginous, and less gritty. 

European Rhubarb, from Rheum palmatum, R. rhaponticum, 
R. compactum, R. undulatum, R. Emodi and other species of Rheum, 
is sometimes trimmed to resemble Chinese rhubarb, but the taste is 
more mucilaginous and less gritty. Seldom used. The leaf-stalks 
are used in Europe as we use them here, for cooking. 

Senega 

N. Senega, Senega Snake-root. — 0. The root of Polygala Senega; 
Polygalacex. — H. Southern United States. — D. A fleshy, tapering, 
somewhat tortuous and slightly branched root, with a many- 
headed caudex often having the remains of numerous stems at- 
tached, of the size shown in the illustration, or frequently much 
smaller; deeply wrinkled and with a "keel" or prominent ridge 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



203 



in the concave parts of the bends of the roots, which constitutes 
a diagnostic feature ; externally yellowish-gray to yellowish- 
brown, internally pale yellowish-white ; bark thick and woqpl- 
cylinder incomplete and irregularly excentric as shown in the 
drawings of sections which were enlarged from actual specimens; 
odor slight but disagreeable and taste at first insipidly sweetish, 
afterwards acrid. — C. Senegin (Saponin) and polygalic acid, 
etc. — U. Stimulant and alterative blennorrhetic and expectorant, 
acting especially on the bronchial mucous membranes. Dose: 0.5 
to 1.5 grams. 

The above describes Southern Senega. Northern Seneca, 




Fig. 147. 



from Polygala alba, is inferior ; it is thicker, lighter-colored, with- 
out keel, with the woody portion thick and regular. Other (so- 
called "spurious") senegas are excluded by the official description. 



Gentiana 

N. Gentian. — 0. The root of Gentiana lutea; Gentianacea. — H. 
The mountainous regions of Central and Southern Europe. — D. 
A fleshy root, sometimes with a several-headed caudex, cylin- 
drical, little branched, of various lengths up to 20 cm. long, about 
25 millimeters thick, annulate at the upper end, deeply wrinkled 



204 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



longitudinally, occasionally split lengthwise, dark brown exter- 
nally and cinnamon-colored internally, breaking with abrupt brit- 
tle fracture in dry weather but somewhat flexible in damp 
weather, with a rather thick bark and a soft fleshy wood, with- 
out pith, and free from starch; odor faint and taste intensely 
and persistently bitter. — C. The amorphous glucoside gentiopicrin, 
gentisic acid, gentianose, pectin, etc. — U. A bitter tonic. Dose: 0.5 
to 2 grams. 

Sometimes the roots of G. purpurea, G. punctata and G. pannon- 
ica are also gathered and mixed with the official drug. These roots 




are similar in action and in appearance to that of G. lutea and this 
admixture is not considered to be objectionable. 



Calumba 

N. Calumba, Colombo. — 0. The root of Jateorhiza palmata; 
Menispermacem. — H. Eastern Africa, especially Mozambique, 
where the plant grows wild; it is also cultivated in some of the 
East Indian Islands. — D. The fresh large fleshy root is cut into 
tranverse sections which are circular or broadly elliptical, from 
three to six cm. in diameter and from eight to twelve mm. thick, 
often depressed around the center which latter may however pro- 
ject as a nipple-like elevation; the exterior surface is brownish- 
green, while the cut surfaces are yellowish-gray with a brighter 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



205 



yellow color in the bark under the epidermis, and with the cam- 
bium zone often distinctly marked by a brownish-gray line which 
is crossed by numerous more or less distinctly marked radiating 
lines; breaks with an abrupt brittle and mealy fracture; odor 
slight and taste mucilaginous and bitter. Sometimes longer cylin- 
drical or tapering pieces are found which are the branches or ends 
of the roots without being cut into transverse slices, but they are 
readily recognized as calumba by the resemblance to the sec- 
tions. — C. Columbin, berberine, etc. — U. Bitter tonic. Dose: 0.5 
to 2 grams. 

Calumba must have a good bright color. Worm-eaten and dark 
or dirty-colored calumba is more common than the sound drug, 




Fig. 149. 



and such inferior drug should be rejected. This drug is said to 
be occasionally adulterated with transverse slices of other roots, 
such as bryonia, etc., but it is doubtful whether such additions 
are practicable as they are too easily recognized by even a novice. 



Bryonia 

N. Bryonia, Bryony. — 0. The roots of Bryonia all) a and of Bry- 
onia dioica; Cucurbitacece. — H. Central and Southern Europe. — 
D. Transverse sections, 3 to 6 cm. diameter, about 6 mm. thick, gray- 
ish-broAvn externally and the grayish-white cut surfaces marked 
with rough concentric and radiating lines due to projecting fibro- 
vascular bundles; hard, breaking with abrupt, brittle and mealy 



206 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



fracture ; no odor but taste bitter and nauseous. — C. A bitter glu- 
coside, bryonin, etc. — U. Hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 0.5 to 4 
grams. 




Fig. 150. • 

The drug obtained from B. dioica is smoother and more mealy on 
its cut surfaces than that derived from B. alba. 

Althaea 

N. Marshm allow Root.— 0. The root of Althcea officinalis; Mal- 
vacece. From plants at least two years old. — H. Europe, 
Western and Northern Asia; cultivated in Europe; naturalized in 
United States. — D. Irregularly cylindrical or tapering pieces, 10 
to 20 cm. long and about 10 to 20 mm. thick ; deprived of the ex- 




Fig. 151. 



ternal bark ; without rootlets, but with numerous round spots or 
root-scars; deeply wrinkled longitudinally; externally and inter- 
nally white, mealy and fibrous; fracture abrupt and mealy; odor 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



207 



faintly aromatic and taste sweetish mucilaginous. — C. Asparagin, 
pectin, mucilage (35 per cent) and starch (35 per cent). — U. De- 
mulcent. Dose: Ad libitum. 

As usually bought and sold by the retail pharmacist it is cut 
into small cubes (about 3 or 4 mm. on each side) which are white, 
and readily recognized by the peculiar odor of the drug. A dis- 
colored or mouldy root, or one having a disagreeable or sourish 
odor or taste, must be rejected. 

Phytolaccse Radix 

N. Poke Root. — 0. The root of Phytolacca decandra; Phytolac- 
cacece. — H. Indigenous; naturalized in S. Europe and West In- 




Fig. 152. 

dies. — D. The root is a large fleshy, conical root, grayish-brown 
externally, whitish within, sometimes as much as twenty cm. 
thick at the upper end and up to one-half meter long, with many 
heads to which remnants of hollow stems containing transverse 
shreds of pith are attached. 

A transverse section shows the fibro-vascular bundles to be ar- 
ranged in irregularly concentric circles, as shown in the drawing 
of a microscopical section of a small piece (to the left, in Fig. 
152) ; this arrangement of the bundles explains the appearance 
of the drug as found in the trade, for Avhen dry the parenchyma 



208 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

shrinks more than the bundles and becomes light brownish-gray 
while the bundles remain whitish, and project above the shrunken 
parenchyma. In the trade the root is found in transverse or lon- 
gitudinal slices to some of which portions of the hollow stems re- 
main attached ; one of these drawings is of a small transverse slice 
as it appeared in the evening with the light falling on it obliquely, 
thus illuminating the projecting lines of fibro-vascular bundles, 
deepening the tints of the parenchyma by the strong shadows, thus 
exaggerating the contrast in color but showing the relief more 
clearly; the lower right-hand figure illustrates a small fragment of 
a longitudinal slice; the drug is hard and breaks with a fibrous 
fracture; odor, none; taste sweetish acrid. — C. No active principle 
has been isolated but the action probably depends on an undeter- 
mined glucoside. — U. Has been highly recommended as an altera- 
tive antiarthritic in rheumatism, and as a solvent in inflammation 
and threatened abscess of the breast. Dose: 0.05 to 0.5 gram; in 
overdoses it is poisonous. 

Rumex 

N. Yellow Dock, Radix Lapathi. — 0. The root of Bumex crispus 







Fig. 153. 

and of other varieties of Bumex; Polygonacece. — H. Europe ; natu- 
ralized in North America. — D. A long, tapering, simple fleshy root 
with but few root-fibers, sometimes somewhat fusiform, annulate 
above, deeply wrinkled below; generally broken as in the drawing 
which is about five-sixths natural size, the tough fibrous wood 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



209 



bundles, especially in the larger and older roots, holding the 
broken parts together ; ten to thirty cm. long and twelve to fifteen 
mm. thick; externally brown or reddish-brown, internally some- 
what horny and dingy brownish-yellow; stains the saliva yellow; 
little or no odor and a bitter astringent taste.— C. Tannin, chryso- 
phanic acid, etc. — U. Alterative, astringent, tonic. Dose: 2 to 5 
grams. 

Symphytum 

N. Symphytum* Comfrey. — 0. The root of Symphytum officinale; 
BoraginacecB. — H. Europe and United States. — D. The nearly sim- 
ple root is up to fifteen cm. long and from eight to twenty mm. 




Fig. 154. 



thick, the larger pieces often split lengthwise, very hard, wrinkled, 
somewhat twisted, blackish-brown externally and whitish within ; 
breaks with an abrupt, somewhat brittle fracture, the broken end 
appearing whitish and horny; odorless, and taste sweetish, muci- 
laginous and slightly astringent. — 0. Mucilage, asparagin, tannic 
acid, etc. — D. Demulcent and slightly astringent. Dose: 5 to 15 
grams per day. 

Saponaria 

N. Saponaria, Soapwort. — 0. The root of Saponaria officinalis; 
Caryophyllacece. — H. Europe and America. — D. Cylindrical, about 
twenty-five cm. long but usually broken into shorter lengths, the 
older roots up to twelve mm. or more in thickness; formerly the 



210 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



roots from older plants were more common than at present, and 
these were marked with distinct annual layers, but now the thin 
roots from one-year-old plants are preferred and these appear as 
in the drawings, from two or three to twelve mm. thick, rusty or 




Fig. 155. 

reddish-brown externally, hard, with abrupt fracture, the section 
showing a thick whitish bark and a delicate brownish cambium zone 
surrounding a pale yellowish wood without radiating markings ; no 
odor and a somewhat bitter and afterwards acrid taste. The smaller 
roots are to be preferred and large and woody roots should be re- 
jected. — 0. Saponin, etc. — U. Alterative diaphoretic; used simi- 
larly to Sarsaparilla in chronic skin diseases, etc. Dose: 25 to 50 
grams during the day, in infusion. 



Lappa 

N. Burdock, Radix Bardanae. — 0. The root of Arctium Lappa 
and of some other species of Arctium; Compositce. From one-year- 
old plants. — H. Europe and Northern Asia; naturalized in North 
America. — D. A simple, fleshy, fusiform root about thirty cm. long 
to three cm. thick ; crowned with a tuft of whitish, soft, hairy leaf- 
stalks; externally grayish-brown and internally paler brown; frac- 
ture somewhat horny ; bark thick and with occasional spaces contain- 
ing a whitish felt-like mass of broken-down tissue, the cambium zone 
dark-colored, wood radiate and the center having spurious pith or 
cavities filled with a similar white tissue-debris as is found in the 
spaces in the bark ; odor faint but disagreeable, and taste sweetish- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 211 

bitter and mucilaginous. The root usually comes into trade split 
lengthwise, so that the glistening white spurious pith becomes a char- 
acteristic and diagnostic feature. — C. Inulin (no starch), mucilage, 
bitter extractive, etc. — U. Diaphoretic, diuretic and alterative. 




Fig. 156. 

Has been very highly praised as a remedy in psoriasis and other 
skin diseases. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. 

Alkanna 

N. Alkanet. — 0. The root of All-anna tinctoria; Boraginacece. — 
H. Southeast Europe and Western Asia. — D. A long, fleshy, cylin- 
drical, slightly branched root with a several or many-headed cau- 
dex to which tufts of leaf-bases remain attached, usually broken in 
pieces about ten cm. long and finger-thick, most of the thickness 
consisting in the dry drug of a thick bark, the outer layers of 
which, are foliaceous or torn into many shreds, which are but 
loosely adherent to each other and to the inner bark and wood, 
which latter is also often torn into its separate bundles during 
drying; the bark and medullary rays are dark purplish- violet in 
color, while the wood-bundles are yelloAvish, all parts being readily 
friable; little or no taste or odor. — C. Alkannin, a deep red color- 
ing matter which is soluble in alcohol, oils, fats, etc., but insoluble 
in water. — U. For coloring hair-oils, pomades and other fatty 
preparations. 

As the coloring matter is mainly found in the bark, the value 
of the drug depends on the proportion of bark present, and as 
this is sometimes sold separately, a drug consisting to any undue 
extent of the wood bundles should be rejected. 



212 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Frasera 

N. Frasera, American Colombo, American Gentian. — 0. The 
root of Frasera Walteri; Gentianacece. — H. United States, Alle- 
ghenies and westward. — D. A large fleshy root which formerly 
was sometimes cnt into transverse slices resembling Calumba 
(whence the name American Colombo), but is now usually split 
in longitudinal slices, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 157) in 
natural size, annulate above, wrinkled longitudinally below, 
brown externally, light yellowish-brown within, odor reminding 




Fig. 157. 

of gentian, taste sweetish and afterwards bitter. — C. Similar to 
those of gentian, gentiopicrin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic. Dose: 1 to 5 
grams. 



RHIZOMES 

The stems of many plants are too weak to stand upright, and 
such stems lie procumbent on the ground, branching diffusely in 
a horizontal direction; such stems may lie on top of the ground, 
or be partially covered by the ground, or they may grow just 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 213 

below the surface of the ground, usually producing rootlets at 
the nodes in contact with the soil. Such stems are called ' ' creep- 
ers;" or when they are habitually covered altogether by the 
ground, they are called "rhizomes." 

Rhizomes are underground stems, distinguished from roots 
by having nodes and internodes which are absent in roots; they 
may vary in length, some being creeping and often quite long, 
others being short and compact; some come into trade with the 
roots (usually simple "rootlets") attached, some without the 
roots; these rootlets are in some attached all around and along 
the full length, in some only on the under side, and in others 
only at the nodes, and when they are broken off the resulting 
scars are often characteristic and aid in the recognition of the 
drug. The remains of leaves or stems are often attached to the 
growing ends of rhizomes. We group the commercial drugs of 
this class, first, according to their most striking peculiarity, the 
presence or absence of rootlets, then according to structure (acrog- 
enous, endogenous, exogenous, or with or without ducts, as the 
case may be) and to some extent according to shape (long or 
short). 

Rhizomes are generally spoken of in the trade as "roots," but 
while there may be no serious objection to the continuance of this 
practice, yet the difference between roots and rhizomes must of 
course be always remembered by the student of pharmacognosy, 
as otherwise the confusion of terms may seriously interfere with 
the ready recognition of the respective drugs. 

When grouping according to presence or absence of rootlets 
we must remember that when drugs are gathered by savage or 
barbarous people, these people do things in a routine manner 
and do not deviate from the methods of their ancestors, and 
such drugs are gathered, cut, dried and put up for the trade as 
they have been for generations or perhaps for centuries; thus 
calumba always was and still is cut into transverse slices. On 
the other hand, civilized people vary the methods of trimming, 
often in an arbitrary or capricious manner, as when veratrum 
viride is sometimes whole with rootlets, sometimes without root- 
lets, or sometimes cut longitudinally into halves or quarters or 
sliced transversely into sections. So it happens that while a 
drug may be classed as a rhizome with rootlets, it may occasion- 



214 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ally be found without rootlets, or vice versa; yet in most cases 
the drugs are as is herewith explained and deviations are ex- 
ceptional. 

f Mono-cotyledonous 22 

With rootlets J _. , n r With ducts* 23 

cotyledonous J TTT .^ , -, , * n . 

J | Without ducts* 24 

Cryptogamous 25 

26 

27 

long 28 

[Di-cotyledonous ahort ^ 



Ehizomes < 



- 



Without rootlets 



[long 
Mono-cotyledonous j , , 



GROUP XXII 

MONO-COTYLEDONOUS EHIZOMES WlTH ROOTLETS 

Endogenous or mono-cotyledonous rhizomes, whether with or 
without rootlets, are readily recognized by the manner of dis- 
tribution of fibro-vascular bundles, as well as by the nucleus 
sheath when the latter is present, as has already been described. 

Grayish or brownish, deeply-wrinkled roots, often over one 

meter long, folded back over a compact rhizome Sarsaparilla. 

Obconical, blackish-gray with shriveled, lighter-colored 

rootlets Veratrum Viride. 

Thin, branched, straw-colored or pale yellowish, with hair- 
like rootlets at nodes Convallaria. 

Jointed, deeply-wrinkled, flattish, grayish-brown, annulated 

with darker colored markings Iris Versicolor. 

Obconical to sub-globular, annulate, orange-brown Trillium. 

Obconical, grayish-brown, with rootlets on upper part; whit- 
ish within Dracontium. 

Bent, orange-brown, with many stem-scars above and wavy 

rootlets below Cypripedium. 

Whole, or longitudinal slices, yellowish-brown, whitish with- 
in, annulate Polygonatum. 

Much branched and curved; pale brown, very hard and 

tough Dioscorea. 

Sub-cylindrical, curved, grayish-brown with tough, wiry 

rootlets Helonias. 

Cylindrical, covered with tufts of leaf -bases and numerous 

pale-colored and soft rootlets Aletris. 

Flattish-cylindrical, reddish-brown, with root-scars in wavy 

lines on under side Calamus. 

*Oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces or large cells. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Sarsaparilla 



215 



The various kinds of Sarsaparilla have been fully described in 
Group XVI, where they properly belong, as the roots alone are 
directed to be used, and where descriptions will be found. 
Mexican and Jamaica Sarsapaeillas usually consist of the root- 
lets attached to the "chumps" or rhizomes, and therefore might 
naturally be looked for here, wherefore they must be mentioned. 

Veratrum Viride 

N. Veratrum. American Hellebore. — 0. The rhizome and root- 
lets of Veratrum viride; Liliacece. — H. North America. — D. Up- 




Fig. 158. 



right ob conical rhizome, from three to eight cm. long and two to 
three cm. thick, when dried, often crowned with concentric lay- 
ers of leaf-bases, externally blackish-gray and covered Avith light- 
brown deeply-wrinkled rootlets up to ten or more cm. long and 
two mm. thick, from which the bark can be readily torn, show- 
ing an almost white fibrous wood; sometimes the rhizome is cut 



216 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

into halves longitudinally, as shown in one of the figures, or it 
may occasionally occur in transverse sections, or even without 
rootlets, although this is more rarely the case ; it is without odor 
but is a powerful sternutatory when the powder is inhaled; the 
taste is bitter and acrid. — C. Jervine, veratroidine, etc. — U. Se- 
dative and antispasmodic, especially in puerperal convulsions; 
emetic, diaphoretic, and errhine. Dose: 0.1 to 0.3 gram, best 
given as fluid extract or tincture. 

"While generally considered a dangerous or even poisonous 
remedy, it is claimed that no fatal effects have ever been ob- 
served from an overdose. Antidotal treatment should consist 
of emesis (usually effected by the drug itself), stimulants, alco- 
holics or ammonia, warm applications, etc. 

Veratrum Album, or "White Veratrum, is a European variety 
of this drug, which is similar to the American drug in appear- 
ance as well as in action, and is used for the same purposes. 

Convallaria 

N. Convallaria, Lily of the Valley Root. — 0. The rhizome and 
rootlets of Convallaria majalis; Liliacece. — H. Northern temperate 
zone ; cultivated in gardens. — D. The drug consists of a tangled or 
matted mass of pale straw-colored or yellowish, but not glossy, 
rhizomes and rootlets; the rhizomes sometimes branched, but 
usually simple, often with the growing end thickened and annu- 
lar and crowned with a mass of soft, whitish, threadlike hairs (the 
remnants of leaf bases) ; this thicker end contracts either ab- 
ruptly or tapers to a thin rhizome, which is lighter-colored than 




Fig. 159. 

the thick end and slightly wrinkled longitudinally; from five to 
ten cm. long and two to three mm. thick, with internodes from 
two to five cm. long, and with a few thin, almost threadlike root- 
lets attached at the slightly thickened nodes or joints; the frac- 
ture is tough and fibrous and the interior is white ; the drug has 
no odor, and the taste is bitter and slightly acrid. — C. Conval- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 217 

larin, convallamarin, etc. — U. Heart tonic, especially useful in 
cardiac dropsies; in overdoses poisonous. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams 
daily. 

Iris Versicolor 

N. Blue Flag. — 0. The rhizome of Iris versicolor; Iridacece. — 
H. In swampy localities in North America. — D. In pieces of va- 
rious lengths, sometimes branched, but usually simple ; internodes 
five to ten cm. long, cylindrical at the older end and nattish at 
the growing end, where the numerous long, simple rootlets are 
attached when present; the upper (growing) end is marked with 
a circular stem-scar, the nodes with small circular root-scars 
when the roots are absent, and the whole length is marked by 
alternate lighter and darker-colored annular markings due to 
the leaf-scars, as shown in the illustration which shows a piece 




Fig. 160. 

of the drug without rootlets; the fracture is somewhat spongy or 
abrupt, the section showing a nucleus sheath which surrounds 
most of the wood-bundles; nearly inodorous, and taste acrid and 
nauseous. — C. Acrid resin, etc. — U. Emetico-cathartic in large 
doses; in medicinal doses hydragogue cathartic, cholagogue, diu- 
retic and alterative. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. This drug is often 
found in the trade without rootlets, and it is therefore also men- 
tioned under Group XXVI. A lot of well-cleaned rootless blue- 
flag looks more attractive, although there is probably no prefer- 
ence from a therapeutical standpoint. 

Trillium 

N. Beth-root, Birth-root. — 0. The rhizome of Trillium erectum 
and other varieties of Trillium; Liliacece. — H. United States. — D. 
Obconical to subglobular, often somewhat flattened, from two 
to five cm. long, shaped as shown in the drawing ; annulate, with 
the few and short rootlets attached near the upper end, which is 



218 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

sometimes tufted with leaf -remnants; externally light yellowish- 
brown, internally whitish, inodorous and taste somewhat astrin- 
gent, afterwards bitter and acrid. — C. Acrid glucoside, etc. — U. 




Fig. 161. 

Used in genito-urinary troubles, as menorrhagia, leucorrhoea, 
etc.; emmenagogue and emetic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. 

Dracontium 

N. Skunk Cabbage. — 0. The rhizome of Dracontium fcetidum 
( Symplocarpus fcetidus); Aracem. — H. North America. — D. From 
five to ten cm. long and half as wide, obconical, shaped as shown 
in the drawing; the upper end usually has concentrically ar- 
ranged leaf-remnants and numerous long, shriveled and deeply 




Fig. 162. 



wrinkled rootlets attached, but these roots are often cut from 
the rhizomes and either come loose and separate in the bales or 
are absent; the drug is dark grayish-brown externally and whit- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 219 

ish within, but when it comes cut into slices or into longitudinal 
quarters, which is frequently the case, the cut surfaces on dry- 
ing also appear grayish; the odor reminds one of a polecat, 
whence the name of the drug, and the taste is pungent and 
acrid. — C. Resin, an acrid volatile principle (the latter not iso- 
lated), etc. — U. Stimulant and anti-spasmodic; used in hysteria, 
etc. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 

Cypripedium 

N. American Valerian, Lady's Slipper; commonly, but erro- 
neously, called Ladies' Slipper. — 0. Rhizome and roots of Cypri- 
pedium pitbescens and C. parviflorum; Orcliidacece. — H. United 
States. — D. The rhizome is usually curved or bent, beset with 
numerous long wavy rootlets which become entangled so that 




Fig. 163. 

the drug is a matted mass; in the illustration most of the rootlets 
are represented as removed, to show the nature of the rhizome, 
which is marked on its upper side with numerous circular cup- 
shaped but very shallow stem-scars, which are about as far apart 
from the edge of one to the edge of the other, as the diameter of 
such a scar; the rhizome is from five to ten cm. long and about 
three mm. thick, and the rootlets are up to twenty cm. long and 
about 1.5 mm. thick; dark brown to light orange-brown; frac- 
ture brittle, showing yellowish-white within; a faint but sicken- 
ing odor and a sweetish-bitter and slightly pungent taste. — C. No 
active principle has been isolated; fixed oils, resins, etc. — U. Dia- 
phoretic, anti-spasmodic and nervine. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 

According to Maisch the rhizome of C. pitbescens is the longer 
of the two rhizomes and is usually bent Avith a shallow curve, de- 
pressed in the middle so as to make a U-shaped curve ; this may be 



220 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



remembered by thinking of the first letters which differ in the 
names of the two drugs, Cypripedium pubescens having a u where 
Cypripedium p&rviflorurn has an a. The rhizome of the latter 
plant is contorted, often bent at right angles, or with an upward 
curve. In both the rootlets spring from all sides of the rhizomes 
but bend abruptly downward, hiding the rhizome, so that to ex- 
amine the latter the rootlets must be removed as was done prior 
to making the illustration. 

Polygonatum 

N. Solomon's Seal. — 0. The rhizomes of several varieties of 
Polygonatum, Polygonatum giganteum, P. biflorum, P. multiflo- 




Fig. 164. 



rum, and P. uniflorum; Convallaria Polygonatum; Liliacem. — H. 
The first two are indigenous, the third grows in Europe and 
America, and P. uniflorum is a European plant. — D. The drug 
varies in size as it comes from one or another of these plants, 
but is always a rhizome with nodes, on the upper side of which 
are depressed stem-scars which resemble the impressions of a 
seal, wherefore the drug is called "Solomon's Seal." A com- 
mon form of the drug is as in the drawing, the upper figure of 
which shows the shape of the fresh rhizome reduced, but which 
is in reality about fifteen. cm. long and up to four or five cm. 
broad, but in the drug is usually sliced longitudinally as shown 
in the lower figures; each joint is marked with a stem-scar; the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



221 



outer surface is yellowish-brown, the interior is whitish; the frac- 
ture is abrupt and somewhat spongy, showing the wood bundles 
mostly in the center, but without the nucleus sheath; odor none 
and taste mucilaginous, bitter and slightly acrid. Another much 
smaller form is one in which the rhizome is also about fifteen cm. 
long, but only about five mm. thick, not sliced, but in other re- 
gards similar to the above described variety. — C. Convallarin, 
asparagin, mucilage, etc. — U. Said to exert a special action on re- 
laxed mucous membranes, as in leucorrhoea, etc. Dose: 1 to 2 
grams, preferably in the form of fluid extract. 

Dioscorea 

N. Wild Yam. — 0. The rhizome of Dioscorea villosa; Dioscora- 
cece. — H. United States. — D. The shape and size of the drug are 




well represented in Fig. 165 ; crooked, branched, somewhat flat- 
tened, with few rootlets; very hard and tough, but breaks with 
an abrupt, somewhat fibrous fracture; pale-brown externally and 
white within, with yellowish wood-bundles; odorless, and taste 
insipidly mucilaginous but developing a slight acridity after 
chewing for a little while. — C. An acrid principle resembling sapo- 
nin, resin, etc. — U. Said to be anti-spasmodic and anti-rheumatic ; 
also useful in bilious colic, cholera morbus, etc. Dose: 0.5 to 2 
grams. 



222 



HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 



Helonias 

N. False Unicorn Root. — 0. The rhizome of Chamcelirium lu- 
teum (Helonias dioica); Liliacem. — H. North America. — D. Cylin- 
drical, curved, with stem-scars on upper surface and occasionally 
with leaf-remnants at growing end, closely annulate in small 
pieces and more coarsely annulate in larger specimens, beset with 
long, wiry rootlets, which, however, are sometimes wanting in 
the drug; from two to seven cm. long and five to twenty mm. 





Fig. 166-^ 



Fig. 166-5. 



thick; externally dark grayish-brown, internally whitish and 
horny; fracture abrupt, showing numerous wood bundles near 
center; odor peculiar, though weak, but readily perceived when 
the drug is bruised, and the taste bitter and acrid. — C. Chamaeli- 
rin, etc. — U. Tonic, diuretic and anthelmintic. Dose: 1 to 4 
grams. (See Fig. 166-A.) 

Aletris 

N. Aletris, Star Grass, Unicorn Root. — 0. The rhizome of Ale- 
tris farinosa; Hcemodoracece. — H. United States. — D. The rhizome 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 223 

is about two to three em. long and three to ten mm. thick, indis- 
tinctly jointed, with loose tufts of leaves and beset with nu- 
merous light grayish-yellow fibrous rootlets; externally grayish- 
brown, internally white, breaking with a mealy, somewhat 
fibrous fracture; odor none, and taste bitter. — C. A bitter prin- 
ciple. — U. Bitter tonic and stomachic ; reputed to be a tonic to 
the uterus, counteracting a tendency to miscarriage. Dose: 0.5 
to 1 gram. (See Fig. 166-5.) 

Calamus 

Calamus, which usually comes into trade with the rootlets re- 
moved, is occasionally found with the rootlets attached, and 
would then be looked for in this group of drugs. The student is 
referred to Group XXVI for a description of this drug. 



GROUP XXIII 

dl-cotyledonous rhizomes wlth rootlets ; wlth ducts or 

Oil Cells 

Di-cotyledonous or exogenous rhizomes are recognizable by 
the arrangement of their fibro-vascular bundles; the word ''duct" 
is used in this book to include oil, resin or latex ducts, spaces or 
large (special) cells. Of the three drugs mentioned in this group, 
one, Arnica Root, has large ducts, which are very readily recog- 
nizable, but in Serpent-aria and Valerian the oil-cells are not very 
markedly larger than the other parenchyma cells, and although 
readily seen while still containing the oil, are not easily distin- 
guished after the cell-contents have been removed, as is usually 
the case in finished slides, and therefore Valerian and Serpentaria 
are also mentioned in the next group. 

Small, hard, dark brown, curved rhizome; rootlets all on lower 

side; a ring of ducts in the section Arnica. 

Short, thick, upright rhizome, with many rootlets; with char- 
acteristic odor Valeriana. 

Thin, small rhizome, with remains of stems on upper side, and 

many rootlets on lower side Serpentaria. 



224 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Arnicse Rhizoma 

N. Arnica Root, Arnicce' Radix. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets 
of Arnica montana.; Composite?. — H. Europe, Asia and North 
America. — D. The drug consists of a tangled mass of rhizomes 
and rootlets; the rhizome is curved or contorted, up to five cm. 
long and two to three mm. thick, usually crowned with a tuft of 
leaf remnants, hard, brittle, wrinkled, annulate and nodulate 
with stem-remnants and leaf-scars, and the under side beset 
with numerous hard brittle rootlets, which are up to eight cm. 
long, and less than one mm. thick; the color of the rhizome is 
dark brown externally, with whitish bark and yellowish wood 
within, and with a large whitish pith; in the inner layer of the 




Fig. 167. 



bark, surrounding the cambium, there is a circle of large resin- 
ducts and a similar circle of resin-ducts occurs in the rootlets; 
the odor is peculiar, aromatic, and the taste is acrid, aromatic 
and somewhat bitter. The illustration shows the rhizome in 
natural size, sections of the rhizome in natural size and enlarged 
in the upper part aiid a section of a rootlet in the lower part of 
the drawing. — C. Resins, volatile oil, etc. — U. Stimulant and vul- 
nerary. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 



Valeriana 

N. Valerian. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Valeriana officin- 
alis; Valerianae ece. — H. Europe and North Asia; cultivated in 
New England, especially in Vermont. — D. The rhizome is short, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



225 



thick, upright, two to four cm. long, and one to two cm. thick, 
crowded with stem and leaf remnants, dark brown externally, 
brownish or grayish-brown, and somewhat horny within; beset 
with numerous deeply-wrinkled, brownish rootlets, five to ten 
cm. long and about two mm. thick, which are often twisted or 
sometimes braided into a conical or tapering compact cluster; 
the rhizomes are sometimes cut in halves, longitudinally, as 
shown in the drawing; the parenchyma cells of the bark and 
pith contain mainly starch, but some of them contain oil; in the 
bark and in the medullary rays are also larger oil-cells or glands, 
but in the sections from which the cell-contents have been re- 




Fig. 168. 



moved these oil-cells are not readily to be distinguished from the 
starch-cells, and the drug is therefore also enumerated in the 
next group; the odor is peculiar, exerting aphrodisiac effects on 
cats, and the taste is bitterish camphoraceous. — C. Volatile oil, 
valeric acid, etc. — U. Stimulant, nervine, anti-hysteric, anti-spas- 
modic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. 

A smaller variety of this drug which grows in dry mountainous re- 
gions is considered to be best; a larger variety, which grows in 
moist lowlands, is often cut into longitudinal halves, the inner 
surface then appearing concave on drying; this is considered to 
be inferior. 



226 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Serpentaria 

N. Serpentaria, Virginia Snake Eoot. — 0. The rhizome and 
rootlets of Aristolochia Serpentaria and A. reticulata; Aristolo- 
chiacece. — H. United States. — D. A thin horizontal rhizome, one 
to two cm. long and two mm. thick, curved, with the upper side 
closely beset with short stem-remnants and the under side with 
many pale-brown, brittle rootlets, five to ten cm. long and less 
than one mm. thick; externally pale-brown and whitish within; 
fracture abrupt, smooth, showing excentric wood with small pith; 




Fig. 169. 

the fundamental tissue consists of parenchyma containing starch 
and in the bark are large oil-cells, but these cells are not suffi- 
ciently different from the adjoining starch-cells to be readily 
recognized when the sections have been cleared by removal of 
cell-contents, and this drug is therefore also mentioned in the 
next group; the odor reminds of a mixture of camphor and tur- 
pentine and the taste is bitterish camphoraceous. — C. Aristolo- 
chine, volatile oil, etc. — U. Stimulant, useful in typhoid condi- 
tions. Dose: 0.5 to 4 grams. 

The illustrations (Fig. 169) show the rhizome, whole and Ion- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 227 

gitudinal section, after soaking in water, and the transverse sec- 
tions of rhizome (above) and of a rootlet (below). 

The rootlets of A. reticulata (Texas Snake Koot) are said to be 
coarser, longer and less interlaced than those of A. serpent aria. 
Spigelia resembles Serpentaria, bnt is nearly black and has cir- 
cular stem-scars instead of stem-remnants. Other admixtures 
are readily excluded by the description of the drug. 

GROUP XXIV 

dl-cotyledonous rhizomes "wlth rootlets ; without ducts or 

Oil Cells 

The drugs of this group resemble those of the last group, ex- 
cept that they have no latex, oil or resin ducts, spaces or large 
cells. 

Short, thick, upright rhizome with many rootlets; with 

characteristic odor Valeriana. 

Thin, small rhizome with remains of stems on upper side, 

and many rootlets on lower side Serpentaria. 

Small, thin, knotty rhizomes, with many brittle rootlets, 

■ gamboge-colored within Hydrastis. 

Irregular, knotty, brownish-black rhizomes, with many 

rootlets which have from 3 to 6 radiating bundles. . Cimicifuga. 

Small, knotty rhizome, with several stem-scars and nu- 
merous long rootlets; grayish-brown Spigelia. 

Hard, irregular, bent and knotty rhizome, with broad 

stem-scars and numerous rootlets; yellowish-brown. Caulophyllum. 

Ehizome a meter or more long, with small rootlets; 

brown or yellowish-brown Menispermum. 

Knotty, many -headed caudex with many rootlets; gray- 
ish or yellowish-brown externally and with white 
wood Asclepias Incamata. 

Blackish-brown, branched and flattened rhizome, with 

many long and nearly black rootlets Leptandra. 

Thin, long, more or less contorted rhizomes; purplish- 
brown externally and whitish within Asarum. 

Much contorted, tough, knotty rhizomes, with several 
stems and more or less contorted roots; light-brown 
externally and white within Gillenia. 

Knotty, scaly and wrinkled rhizome, with rootlets on 

under side; brownish externally and whitish within. G-eum. 

Very hard, knotty and irregularly branched rhizomes, 

with thin and brittle rootlets; grayish-brown Collinsonia. 



228 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Valeriana 

This drug has already been described in Group XXIII, and the 
reasons were there stated why it is also mentioned here. 

Serpentaria 
See Group XXIII for a description of this drug. 

Hydrastis 

N. Hydrastis, Golden Seal. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of 
Hydrastis Canadensis; Ranunadacece. — H. North America. — D. 
Short, thin rhizomes, with many brittle rootlets, a large portion 
of the drug often consisting of broken rootlets mixed with dust 
or dirt ; the rhizome is usually of the shape and size as shown in 




Fig. 170. 

the illustration, or even thinner, but is officially described as 
being much larger, but pieces of the size described in the U. S. 
Pharmacopoeia are very seldom found now, if they occur at all; 
the rhizome is wrinkled longitudinally and beset with stem-rem- 
nants ending with a cup-shaped scar and with many very thin 
rootlets which may be up to 10 cm. long, but are usually much 
shorter on account of being broken; the color is brownish exter- 
nally; fracture abrupt, waxy, gamboge-colored or reddish-yel- 
low ; the section of the rhizome is as shown in the drawing, all the 
fundamental tissue being of a yellow color; odor is slight but 
characteristic and the taste is bitter and slightly astringent. — 
C. Berberine, hydrastine, etc. It should contain at least 2.5 per 
cent of hydrastine. — U. Bitter tonic and alterative. Much used 
•as an alterative local application for relaxed mucous membranes. 
Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



229 



Cimicifuga 

N. Cimicifuga, Black Cohosh, Black Snakeroot. — 0. The rhi- 
zome and rootlets of Cimicifuga racemosa; Ranunculacece.- — H. 
U. S., from Canada to Florida. — D. The rhizome is a rough, irreg- 
ular, knobby, hard, many-headed caudex, up to 2 to 2.5 cm. 
thick and of various lengths, up to about 10 to 12 cm., with sev- 
eral stem-remnants Avith cup-shaped scars and numerous brittle 
rootlets ; externally blackish-brown and grayish within, the root- 




Fig. 171. 

lets being darker colored or almost black ; the rootlets break with 
an abrupt fracture, showing a dark bark and a woody 3 to 6-rayed 
cord, as shown in the small sections and in the larger drawing 
of a microscopical section; odor none, and taste acrid and bit- 
ter. — C. The active principle is probably an amorphous resin. — 
U. Alterative, anti-neuralgic, anti-spasmodic, sedative; useful in 
painful disturbances of the menstrual functions. It is also used 
in the treatment of St. Vitus' Dance in children. Dose: 0.5 to 
2 grams. 



230 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Spigelia 



N. Spigelia, Pinkroot. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Spigelia 
Marilandica; Loganiacece. — H. United States. — D. The rhizome is 
small, knotty, bent, somewhat flattened from the sides, about 3 
to 5 cm. long, 4 mm. thick and 3 mm. wide, at the growing end 
sometimes branched or many-headed, with round scars on the 
upper side and closely beset below with numerous, thin and brit- 
tle rootlets which are about 10 cm. long ; the rhizome is purplish- 
brown or blackish-gray externally and the rootlets are somewhat 
lighter-colored; fracture of the rhizome is abrupt, showing 
brown bark and whitish wood, the latter being horse-shoe shaped, 
or thicker below, and with a brown, horny pith, while the root- 




Fig. 172. 

lets have a central wood-cylinder and a brown, horny bark; 
the odor is slightly aromatic and the taste is sweetish-bitter and 
pungent. — C. Volatile oil, resin, bitter substance, etc. — U. An- 
thelmintic; to avoid toxic effects it is safe to combine it with a 
cathartic, as in the popular combination of Pinkroot and Senna. 
Dose: 2 to 5 grams. 

Caulophyllum 

N. Blue Cohosh, Pappoose Boot, Squaw Eoot. — 0. The rhizome 
and rootlets of Caulophyllum thalictroides ; Berberidacece. — H. N. 
United States and Canada. — D. The drug, consists of a matted 
and tangled mass of rhizomes and rootlets; the rhizome is hard, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 231 

irregular, bent and knotty, up to 10 cm. long and 6 to 10 mm. 
thick, with short, knotty branches marked with, broad saucer- 
shaped stem-scars, the terminal joint sometimes enclosed in a yel- 
lowish-white net-work of remains of fibro-vascular bundles; the 
rootlets, of which but a few are shown in the drawing, are very 
numerous, about 10 to 12 cm. long and 1 mm. thick, tough, fibrous, 
and tangled or matted; rhizome grayish-brown externally, frac- 
ture abrupt, showing a whitish interior, the bark thin, the medul- 
lary rays and pith large, and the wood-bundles thin, in a circle; 
the rootlets have a central wood-cylinder and a relatively thick 
bark; odor slight or none, and taste sweetish with slightly acrid 




Fig. 173. 

after-taste. — C. Leontin (a glucoside?), resins, etc. — U. Antispas- 
modic, diuretic, emmenagogue, and parturient. Dose: 1 to 2 
grams. 

Menispermum 

N. Yellow Parilla. — 0. The rhizomes and rootlets of Menisper- 
mum Canadense; Menispermacece. — H. Canada and E. United 
States. — D. Nearly cylindrical rhizomes, often a meter or more in 
length and usually rolled into bundles, as shown in the drawing, 
such bundles being of variable size, up to 10 or 15 cm. thick, or, 
more rarely, wound in balls; the rhizome is about 5 mm. thick, 
brown or yellowish-brown, longitudinally finely wrinkled and 



232 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



with numerous thin and brittle rootlets; the fracture is tough and 
woody ; the interior is yellowish, and a section shows about four- 
teen or fifteen porous wood-bundles, arranged slightly excen- 
trically with the longer bundles on the under side, distinct pith 
and medullary rays; odor none and taste bitter. — C. Berberine, an 




amorphous alkaloid, etc. — U. Supposed to resemble sarsaparilla 
in medicinal properties, alterative and tonic. Dose: 1 to 4 grams. 
Occasionally the stem is found in the trade, in similar bundles; 
the stem is much thicker than the rhizome, and gray, not brown. 



Asclepias Incarnata 

N. White Indian Hemp, Swamp Milkweed. — 0. The rhizome and 
rootlets of Asclepias incarnata; Asclepiadaceoe. — H. North Amer- 
ica. — D. The rhizome is many-headed, with remains of hollow 
stems, about 1 to 2 cm. thick, knotty, with a thin yellowish-brown 
bark and hard, white wood, and a brownish pith and beset with 
many light-grayish-brown rootlets; the rootlets are about 10 to J 2 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



233 



cm. long, somewhat more than 1 mm. thick and with the bark and 
central wood-cylinder of about equal thickness; Fig. 175 shows 
the whole drug with the rootlets, reduced to about two-thirds 
natural size (linear), and Fig. 176 shows a piece of rhizome, with 




Fig. 175. 




Fig. 176. 



most of the rootlets broken off ; no odor, taste sweetish-bitter and 
acrid. — C. Acrid resins, a glucoside, etc. — U. Alterative, diuretic, 
diaphoretic; in large doses, emetic and cathartic. Dose: 0.5 to 2.5 
grams. 

Leptandra 

N. Culver's Root, Culver's Physic. — 0. The rhizome and root- 
lets of Veronica virginica; Scrophulariacece. — H. North Amer- 
ica. — D. The rhizome is from 10 to 15 cm. long, about 5 mm. 
thick, slightly flattened, bent and branched, deep blackish- 
brown, with cup-shaped scars on the upper side, hard and w T oody, 
the section showing a thin blackish bark, hard yellowish wood, 
and a large purplish-brown pith, and about six medullary rays, 
which are wide at the pith and become narrow toward the bark, giv- 
ing the pith the appearance of a six-rayed star ; the thin and wrinkled 



234 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



rootlets are brittle, and have - a thick blackish bark and a thin 
wood-cylinder; odor faint or none, and taste bitter and slightly 




Fig. 177. 

acrid. — C. Leptandrin, resin, etc. — U. Laxative, alterative tonic 
and cholagogue. Dose: 1 to 4 grams. 

Asarum 

N. Canada Snake Koot, Wild Ginger. — 0. The rhizome and root- 
lets of Asarum Canadense; Aristolochiacece. — H. North America. — 
D. From 7.5 to 15 cm. long, often broken into shorter lengths, 
about 3 mm. thick, somewhat contorted or bent, slightly angular 




Fig. 178. 

or quadrangular, finely wrinkled, with nodes about 1.5 cm. apart 
and with thin nearly simple rootlets at the nodes ; grayish-brown 
or purplish-brown externally and whitish within; hard, with 
woody fracture; odor peculiar, aromatic, and taste aromatic, 
pungent and somewhat nauseous. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — U. 
Spicy stimulant and carminative. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



235 



Gillenia 

N. Gillenia, Indian Physic, American Ipecac. — 0. The rhi- 
zomes and rootlets of Porteranthus stipulatus (Gillenia stipula- 
cea) and Porteranthus trifoliatus (G. trifoliata) ; Rosacece. — H. 
United States. — D. The illustration shows the drug about two- 
thirds (linear) natural size; the horizontal knotty rhizome is 
from 1 to 2 cm. thick, much branched and often with stem-rem- 
nants attached, with numerous tortuous roots: both rhizome and 




Fig. 179. 



roots have a thin brownish-red bark and a tough, whitish wood ; 
in the roots the brittle bark is often cracked off, exposing the 
wood, as shown in the drawing; in Porteranthus stipulatus the 
bark of the roots is irregularly thickened, causing them to resem- 
ble ipecac in the annulate appearance of the roots, but in P. tri- 
foliatus the roots are less contorted and smoother, as in the accom- 
panying figure; odor faint and taste bitter. — C. Two glucosides, 
gillein and gilleenin, resin, etc. — U. Mild emetic. Dose: 1 to 2 
grams. 



236 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Geum 

N. Avens, Water Avens. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of 
Geum rivale; Rosacece. — H. North America. — D. About 5 to 8 cm. 
long and about 6 mm. thick, knotty, scaly, wrinkled, with root- 
lets on under side, brownish or brownish-red externally as well 
as in the thin bark and the large pith, with a few small and 
widely separated whitish wood-bundles; odor slightly aromatic 
and taste astringent and bitter. — C. Volatile oil, tannin, etc. — 
U. Astringent tonic. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. 

European avens, the rhizome and rootlets of Geum uroanum, 
is used like the American variety of this drug; its rhizome is 
thicker and shorter, about finger-thick and 2 to 5 cm. long, with 
a truncated head, and with rootlets about 12 cm. long and less 
than 1 mm. thick; tortuous, wrinkled, scaly, brittle, blackish- 




Fig. 180. 

brown or reddish-brown externally and flesh-colored or yellow- 
ish-white within; bark thin, wood usually in an interrupted circle 
and the large pith purplish brown; odor aromatic and clove-like 
(from which it derives its European name, "Radix caryophyl- 
latce"), and the taste astringent and bitter. — C. and U. like those 
of the American drug. 

Collinsonia 

N. Stone Root. — 0. The rhizome and rootlets of Collinsonia Ca- 
nadensis; Labiatce. — H. North America. — D. A knotty, tubercular, 
irregularly branched rhizome, 7 to 10 cm. long, marked with nu- 
merous shallow stem-scars, and many thin, brittle rootlets; ex- 
ternally grayish-brown and internally grayish- white; very hard 
and tough; a section shows thin bark and irregular wood- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 237 

bundles; no odor, taste disagreeable and nauseous. — C. Contains 
resinous matter, tannin, volatile oil, etc. — U. Stimulant and al- 
terative diuretic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 




Fig. 181. 



The drawing shows the upper surface of the rhizome, reduced 
to about four-fifths linear size ; also a transverse section. 



GROUP XXV 

Cryptogamous Rhizomes Without Rootlets 

The rhizomes of ferns have already been described in Group XV, 
with the other drugs which are derived from this order of plants. 
The acrogenous structure is so characteristic that these drugs 
are readily recognized. 

Only two drugs are of sufficient importance to deserve men- 
tion here: 

Large rhizome, beset with the bases of stipes Aspidium. 

Hard, dark-brown rhizome, beset with short remnants of stipes . Polypodium. 

GROUP XXVI 

MONO-COTYLEDONOUS RHIZOMES WITHOUT ROOTLETS ; ELONGATED 

The endogenous structure of the drugs of this group is readily 
recognized by examining sections. The grouping into "elon- 
gated" and "short or compact" is rather empirical, but is prac- 



238 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



tical; this group includes those in which the length is many 
times greater than the thickness. One of these drugs, Couch 
Grass, so often comes into trade cut, that it will usually be looked 
for in Group LXX, where it is also mentioned. 

Jointed, deeply-wrinkled, flattish, grayish-brown, annulate 

with darker colored markings Iris Versicolor. 

Flattish-cylindrical, reddish-brown, with root-scars in wavy 

lines on the under side Calamus. 

Very long, thin, straw-colored, hollow; usually cut into 

pieces about 1 cm. long Triticum. 

Iris Versicolor 

Blue Flag has already been mentioned under Group XXII ; as it 
comes into trade oftener with the rootlets attached than with- 
out them, the student is referred to that group for illustration 
and description. 

Calamus 

N. Calamus, Sweet Flag. — 0. The rhizome of Acorus Calamus; 
Aracece. — H. Europe, Asia and North America. — D. The unpeeled 




rhizome, which is the only kind that should be used, comes into 
trade usually in pieces 15 to 20 cm. long; it is somewhat flat- 
tened, about 2 cm. broad and 1.5 cm. thick, wrinkled longitudi- 
nally, and marked, especially on the upper surface, into wedge- 
shaped or obscurely triangular segments, by the darker-colored 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 239 

leaf-scars, and on the under side with more or less distinctly zig- 
zag or wavy lines of round dots or root-scars ; externally reddish- 
brown or yellowish-brown, and reddish- white within; breaks 
with an abrupt corky fracture, showing an oval section with the 
thickness of the portion on the outer side of the nucleus sheath 
(often erroneously called the "bark") over one-half the shortest 
diameter of the portion included within the nucleus sheath, with 




Fig. 183. 

numerous brownish spots (fibro- vascular bundles) within the 
nucleus sheath and some also scattered outside the latter; the mi- 
croscope shows the entire parenchyma or fundamental tissue to 
be porous on account of the large intercellular spaces, the cells 
in the drawing (Fig. 183) which are dotted containing starch, 
those which are white containing oleo-resin; odor aromatic and 
taste bitter aromatic. — C. Oleo-resin, volatile oil, etc. — U. Stimu- 
lant, stomachic, carminative and tonic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. 

Peeled Calamus 

is also found in the trade, but as the oil and resin-cells are es- 
pecialty plentiful in the sub-cuticular parenchyma, and as, more- 
over, the thick and tough cuticle prevents both access of air and 
evaporation of volatile oil, the unpeeled drug is decidedly to be 
preferred. Peeled calamus is without the characteristic seg- 
ments, although it shows traces of root-scars on the lower side; 
it is deeply wrinkled and sometimes sliced longitudinally, dirty 
or brownish- white ; when fresh it looks very handsome, especially 
when bleached, but if bleached (with chlorinated lime or sul- 
phurous acid) it is utterly unfit for medicinal use. 



240 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Triticum 

N. Rhizoma Graminis; Couch Grass, Dog Grass, Quick Grass. — 
0. The rhizome of Agropyron repens; Graminacece. — H. Europe 
and North America. — D. A long and branched rhizome, about 
two mm. thick, the internodes about seven cm. long and the nodes 
usually bare, but sometimes with frayed leaf-remnants, or, more 
rarely, with a few hair-like rootlets; smooth, but wrinkled longi- 
tudinally so as to be almost angular, hollow, of a pale straw-color, 
no odor, taste sweetish mucilaginous. As the drug reaches the 
retail pharmacist it is cut into short pieces, about one cm. long, 
looking much like straw chopped for fodder, and it would there- 
fore be looked for in Group LXX, where it is also mentioned. A 
transverse section (Fig. 184) shows the central cavity, the diam- 




Fig. 184. 



eter of which is about one-third of the diameter of the rhizome; 
the tissues consist mainly of parenchyma, hexagonally com- 
pressed, a nucleus sheath dividing a narrow interior layer from 
the wider outer part; just within the nucleus sheath numerous 
bundles are closely aggregated, forming a cylinder, while near 
the outer circumference there are about half a dozen small bun- 
dles at equal distances apart. — C. Glucose, triticin (resembles 
inulin), mucilage, etc. — U. Demulcent diuretic, useful in irritable 
bladder, cystitis, etc. Dose: 5 to 10 grams in infusion or fluid 
extract. 

The rhizomes should be gathered in the fall of the year, after 
vegetation ceases for the season, or in spring before it again 
commences, and the rootlets should be removed. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 241 



GROUP XXVII 

mono-cotyledonous rhizomes "without rootlets ; short and 

Compact 

An examination of the sections shows the endogenous struc- 
ture of these drugs. The group includes those endogenous rhi- 
zomes in which the length is not much more than two or three 
times the thickness of the drug. 

Flattish, lobed, peeled or impeded, brownish, gray or white 

rhizomes Zingiber. 

Cylindrical, branched, reddish-brown rhizomes, annulate 

with lighter-colored wavy leaf-sheaths Galanga. 

Cylindrical or oval yellowish-gray rhizomes, deep orange- 
yellow or gamboge-colored within Curcuma. 

Flat, somewhat ham-shaped, grayish or white rhizomes, 

often with similarly shaped smaller lobes attached. . . . Iris Florentina. 

Very hard, irregular, massive tuberous rhizomes, reddish- 
brown, with funnel-shaped stem-scars Chinae Khizoma. 

Sub-cylindrical, curved, grayish-brown rhizome without 

rootlets Helonias. 

Light-reddish or brownish-gray circular disks, or in longi- 
tudinal halves or quarters Zedoaria. 

Zingiber 

N. Ginger. — 0. The rhizome of Zingiber officinale; Zingibera- 
cece. — H. Cultivated in tropical countries. — D. There are several 
kinds of ginger in the trade, but they resemble each other in 
form. The rhizome is from 5 to 10 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad 
and 5 to 8 mm. thick, flattish, clavately lobed on one side (such 
lobed pieces are called "race" ginger, "race" being derived 
from the French word "racine" or root); with or without epi- 
dermis, varying in color according to variety from dark grayish- 
brown to white ; breaking with a somewhat fibrous mealy frac- 
ture, showing a nucleus sheath within which most but not all of 
the fibro-vascular bundles are found ; odor aromatic and taste pun- 
gently spicy. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc — U. Carminative stimu- 
lant, used for flavoring. Dose: About 1 gram. 

Cochin Ginger (Fig. 185) is the variety that best answers the 
description of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia; pale'-buff-colored or yel- 
lowish, with short lobes and somewhat striate; it makes a beauti- 



242 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



ful light-yellow powder and has a strong but agreeable flavor 
and taste. 

Jamaica Ginger is whitish externally and internally and has 
long lobes; the epidermis is removed and it is often coated with a 
white powder of carbonate of lime from having been immersed in 
milk of lime. The smaller drawing in Fig. 186 shows this variety, 
but while the lobes are usually small, the specimens may some- 




Fig. 185. 




Fig. 186. 



times be as large as the Cochin ginger. This variety has the most 
pleasant flavor and is therefore preferred for culinary purposes. 

African Ginger is an unpeeled ginger; it is illustrated in the 
lower drawing of Fig. 186; it has short lobes and the epidermis 
is dark grayish-brown with peculiar darker patches as if torn on 
one side. It has a stronger though less agreeable taste than the 
other gingers. 

A preserved ginger, made by boiling the fresh rhizomes in a 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 243 

concentrated syrup and then packing in jars, is to be found in the 
grocery trade. 

Green ginger is ginger sent into trade in a fresh condition. 

Black ginger is ginger which has been boiled in water and then 
dried ; it is dark colored and horny within. The term is also some- 
times applied to "unpeeled" ginger. 

Coated ginger is ginger retaining its epidermis, in other words, 
unpeeled ginger. Peeled ginger is without epidermis. Natural or 
unbleached ginger has no lime attached; bleached ginger is whit- 
ened by immersing in milk of lime or chlorinated lime and retains 
a coating of powder of carbonate of lime. 

Galanga 

N. Galangal. — 0. The rhizome of Alpinia officinarum; Zingibe- 
racece. — H. China. — D. Knotty, often branched, cylindrical, about 




Fig. 1S7. 

5 to 6 cm. long and about finger-thick, frequently curved, trun- 
cated at the ends, externally light red-brown, finely wrinkled 
lengthwise, marked by wavy transverse rings from remnants of 
leaf-scales or sheaths, hard, brittle with short fracture, cinnamon- 
brown and showing structure as in Fig. 187, which also shows a 
few starch grains; under the microscope numerous brownish- 
yellow resin-cells are to be seen; odor aromatic, especially when 
freshly ground, and taste pungently spicy. — C. Volatile oil and 
resin. — U. Similar to those of ginger. Often sold by street fakirs 
as a secret catarrh cure, to be grated and used as a snuff; thus 
used it is sternutatory. 



244 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Curcuma 

N. Curcuma, Turmeric. — 0. The rhizome of Curcuma longa; 
Zingiber acem. — H. Southern Asia. — D. Oblong or oval, from 3 to 
5 cm. long and about half as thick, being then called " round 
turmeric," or only about 1 cm. thick, when it is called "long 
turmeric," but most pieces are much smaller; sometimes cut 
longitudinally or transversely, somewhat annulate and with large 
scars; externally yellowish-gray and internally deep orange- 
yellow or brownish-yellow, resembling the color of whole gam- 
boge; fracture abrupt, resinous and glossy, showing a nucleus 
sheath with bundles both w T ithin and without the sheath; odor 




Fig. 188. 



slight and ginger-like, taste warm, bitter, aromatic. The powder 
is rich deep yellow and turns brown with alkalies and borax. — 
C. Volatile oil, resin, and an orange-yellow, resinous coloring 
matter called curcumin, which in solution has a greenish fluores- 
cence. — U. Stimulant carminative, but rarely employed internally ; 
used mainly as a coloring agent and as a spicy addition to various 
pickles. 

In the trade distinction is made between light and dark turmeric 
(or yellow and red turmeric), and between long and round tur- 
meric. 

Of the varieties in our markets Madras Turmeric is best; it is 
generally large and orange-yellow, and somewhat rough externally. 

Bengal Turmeric is gray externally and smoother than the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 245 

Madras variety, and has a darker red color within. It is also 
smaller and more slender. 

Chinese Turmeric is the best, but is not often found in our mar- 
kets. 

Java Turmeric is rather small and usually cut tranversely 
and longitudinally; also rare in our trade. 

Powdered turmeric is occasionally used as an adulterant to 
spices, drugs, etc., to impart a fresh color. The shapes of its 
cells, starch and ducts therefore deserve special study. 

Iris Florentina 

N. Orris Root, Florentine Orris; its German name is Veilchen- 
wurzel (violet root) on account of its violet-like odor which is 
utilized in the manufacture of perfumeries. — 0. The rhizomes of 
Iris Florentina; I. pallida and I. Germanica; Iridacece. — H. North- 
ern Italy; cultivated. — D. Simple or branched, flattened, jointed, 
5 to 10 cm. long and about 2.5 cm. broad; with a circular scar at 
the upper end and with numerous round brownish root-scars on 
the lower side, and small marks of bundles on the upper side ; 
wrinkled lengthwise, or smooth and somewhat angular from 
being peeled; externally whitish or yellowish- white heavy, hard, 
with fracture short and mealy; section long oval, with nucleus 
sheath near the outer surface and most marked on lower half, 
and nbro-vascular bundles within the sheath; odor violet-like 
and taste insipid, afterward bitter and slightly acrid. — C. Vola- 
tile oil, acrid resin, etc. — U. Seldom employed internally. It is 
said to be an alterative cathartic and diuretic. Used mainly in 
the preparation of perfumery, flavoring extracts, etc. 

Florentine Orris is mainly from Iris pallida, and I. Germanica, 
but is named "Florentine" because it is cultivated near the city 
of Florence in Italy. It is considered better than the Veronese 
varieties, although the latter are obtained from the same plants. 
Verona Orris is of a more yellowish color. 

Finger Orris (right-hand drawing in Fig. 189) consists of 
picked, slender, nearly straight pieces, smoothly trimmed in uni- 
form size and shape and usually whitened with chalk, magnesia 
or starch. Usually with a hole drilled through one end. As 
only choice pieces of the rhizome of Florentine Orris can fur- 



246 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



nish this kind of orris, it is sometimes considered to be a better 
variety than the ordinary drag; but for perfumery, etc., it is 
altogether unnecessary to use this drug. It is used only for 




Fig. 189. 



teething infants, but the rubber ring is better and more cleanly. 
Orris Root is frequently worm-eaten. Only sound pieces of 
good odor and light color should be used. 



Chinae Hhizoma 

N. China Root. — 0. The rhizome of Smilax China; Liliacece. — 
H. China and Japan. — D. Stout fibrous tubers, 5 to 20 cm. long 
and 2 to 6 cm. thick, knotty, dense, tough, externally reddish- 
brown, with several deep, circular, funnel-shaped stem-scars on 
the upper surface; internally pale-pinkish or pale brownish- 
white, darker towards the center on account of numerous dark- 
brown resin cells; inodorous; taste at first insipid, afterwards 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



247 



bitterish; slightly astringent and acrid. — C. Similar or identical 
with those contained in sarsaparilla. — U. Same as those of sarsa- 




Fig. 190. 



parilla; alterative. Dose: 2 to 5 grams several times a day, best 
given in form of fluid extract. 

Zedoaria 

N. Zedoary. — 0. The tuberous rhizome of Curcuma Zedoaria; 
Zingiberacem. — H. India, Bengal and Madagascar. — D. The whole 
rhizome is ovoid, abont 4 cm. long and 3 cm. thick, orange- 




Fig. 191. 



broAvn; but the drug usually comes into the trade in circular 
slices or disks, with the cut surfaces pale grayish-brown with a 
somewhat waxy appearance, and showing a nucleus sheath near 
the outer circumference; odor and taste similar to those of 



248 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ginger. — C. Resin, y 2 to 1% volatile oil, etc. — U. and dose simi- 
lar to those of ginger. 

Helonias, or False Unicorn Root, usually has rootlets attached, 
and was described on page 222; occasionally it is without root- 
lets, and then belongs here. 



GROUP XXVIII 

Exogenous Rhizomes Without Rootlets; Long 

Drugs of this group are many times longer than they are thick; 
some of them occasionally, though rarely, come into trade with 
rootlets attached. 

Bhizomes with, thickened nodes, with stem-scars above 

and root-scars below; glossy brown, whitish within. . . Podophyllum. 

Cylindrical, annulate, light, pithy, grayish -brown; bark 

exfoliating Aralia Nudicaulis. 

Podophyllum 

N. Mandrake, May Apple. — 0. The rhizome of Podophyllum 
peltatum; Beroeridacece. — H. North America. — D. Somewhat va- 
riable in size, consisting of joints about 5 to 8 cm. long, the nodes 




Fig. 192. 

thickened, with a well-marked stem-scar on the upper surface 
and white root-scars on the lower surface; the internodes from 5 
to 10 mm. thick, the thinner predominating, and without root- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



249 



scars; the end terminates in a scar and often is branched, and it 
is also somewhat larger than the other parts of the rhizome, as 
is shown in the drawings; smooth, or longitudinally wrinkled; 




Fig. 193. 

orange-brown externally and white within; breaks with an ab- 
rupt, usually white, mealy fracture, so that a section is required 
to show the fibro-vascular bundles of which there are about six- 
teen arranged in a circle (see Fig. 193) ; no odor; taste at first 
sweetish, then bitter and acrid. — C. Resin, called "podophyllin" 
in the trade. The drug is very variable in quality, and its value 
depends directly on the amount of "podophyllin" which it yields; 
there should not be less than three per cent of this substance, 
which, hoAvever, is not a pure resin, but a mixture of several com- 
pounds, such as podophyllinic acid, podophyllotoxin, picropodo- 
phyllin, etc. — U. Emetico-cathartic in large doses; in medicinal 
doses it is a reliable cathartic, supposed also to possess alterative 
and cholagogue properties. Dose: 0:3 to 2 grams. (Fig. 193.) 

Aralia Nudicaulis 

N. American Sarsaparilla, False Sarsaparilla (Fig. 194.) — 0. 
The rhizome of Aralia midicaulis; Araliacece. — H. North Amer- 




Fig. 194. 



ica. — D. Cylindrical, 30 cm. or more in length, but usually broken 
into shorter pieces, about 6 mm. thick, longitudinally wrinkled, 



250 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

annulate above, with cup-shaped scars from stems; rootlets usu- 
ally 'altogether absent; bark grayish-brown, exfoliating; inter- 
nally white or pale yellowish, with a large spongy pith; odor 
slightly aromatic and taste insipid, somewhat disagreeable. — C. 
A little volatile oil, resin, etc. — U. Alterative. Dose: 2 to 5 
grams. 

GROUP XXIX 

Di-cotyledonous Rhizomes "Without Rootlets ; Short and 

Compact 

The length of these drugs is only three or four times greater 
than their diameters; the exogenous structure is easily recog- 
nized in a prepared section, or even in the end of a piece of the 
drug soaked in water and cut through smoothly with a sharp 
knife. 

Flattened, bent upon itself, or broken, dark-brown, hard Bistorta. 

More or less curved and somewhat flattened pieces, with closely 

set, large cup-shaped stem-scars; brownish Scopola. 

Dark reddish-brown rhizome, somewhat flattened, much wrinkled 

and twisted Sanguinaria 

Hard, compact, contorted and tuberculated, umber-brown Geranium. 

Simple, cylindrical or flattened, externally rough and grayish- 
brown Tormentilla. 

Dark-brown, knotty, flattened, with root-scars and transverse 

rings Imperatoria 

Bistorta 

N. Bistort. — 0. The rhizome of Polygonum Bistorta; Polygo- 
nacew. — H. Asia, Europe and America. — D. The whole rhizome 
is about 15 cm. long, 16 to 18 mm. broad and 1 cm. thick ; firm, 
hard, S-shaped or bent twice upon itself, as shown in the drawing 
(whence the name, his, twice, and torta, twisted or bent), flat- 
tened on one side, plump and rounded on the other; marked by 
transverse striae on the upper surface, and with root-scars on the 
lower side; externally dark-broAvn or almost black; breaks with 
abrupt fracture, and in fact usually comes into trade broken at 
the places where it is bent, so that it appears to consist of short 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



251 



straight pieces; internally brownish-red; thick bark, small bundles 
in a circle, and very large pith ; no odor, but taste very astringent. — 




Fig. 195. 



C. About 20 per cent tannin. 
2 grams. 



-U. Simple astringent. Dose: 1 to 



Scopola 

N. Scopola. — 0. The rhizome of Scopola Camiolica; Solana- 
cece. — H. Southwestern Russia, Austria, etc. — D. In pieces from 
2.5 to 7.5 cm. in length and up to 1.5 cm. in thickness ; sometimes 
split lengthwise; irregular in shape, often much bent; slightly 
flattened vertically, and with closely set, large, cup-shaped stem- 
scars on the upper surface; hard, with brittle fracture; brownish 
or brownish-gray externally, whitish within ; finely and irregu- 




Fig. 196. 



larly wrinkled; little odor; taste at first sweetish, afterAvards 
bitterish and acrid. — C. An alkaloid, scopolamine, which is iden- 
tical with hyoscine. — U. Used like belladonna; for the manufac- 



252 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ture of mydriatic alkaloids of which it should contain at least 
0.5 per cent. Dose: About 0.045 gram. 

Introduced in the VIII Revision of the U. S. P., it has been 
dropped in the IX Revision. It is only used by manufacturers of 
alkaloids, belladonna plasters, etc., but has not been used in galen- 
ical preparations. 

Sanguinaria 

N. Blood Root. — 0. Rhizome of Sanguinaria Canadensis; Papa- 
veracew. It should be collected in autumn. — H. North America. — 
D. The rhizome is in pieces about 5 to 7.5 cm. long, 1 to 2 cm. thick, 
somewhat flattened, slightly annulate, much wrinkled and twisted, 
or broken, often with abrupt offsets or branches, and sometimes with 
very brittle rootlets; dark reddish-brown externally; fracture ab- 




Fig. 197. 

rupt, somewhat waxy, in fresh pieces whitish with red dots, in older 
pieces, brownish-red ; odor slight and taste bitter and acrid. — C. The 
alkaloid sanguinarine, one or two other unimportant alkaloids, 
resin, etc. — U. In large doses, emetic ; in smaller doses, stimulant 
and tonic. The powder is sometimes used as an errhine and sternu- 
tatory. Dose: 0.1 to 1 gram. 

The illustration show T s the whole drug, natural size ; transverse 
section of soaked rhizome, and the same after clearing with di- 
lute lye. 

Geranium 

N. Geranium, Cranesbill.— O. Rhizome of Geranium macula- 
turn; Geraniacew. — H. North America. — D. Cylindrical, sometimes 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



253 



branched, 5 to 7 cm. long and about 1 cm. thick, contorted and tu- 
berculated, hard and compact; longitudinally wrinkled; exter- 
nally dark umber-brown; fracture short, showing pale red-brown 




Fig. 198. 

broken surface; inodorous; . taste pure astringent without dis- 
agreeable other taste. — C. From 15 to 25 per cent tannin, etc. — 
U. Astringent tonic. Dose: 1 to 4 grams. 

Tormentilla 

N. Tormentil. — 0. Rhizome of Potentilla Tormentilla; Rosacece. — 
H. Europe. — D. Simple or sometimes branched, cylindrical or flat- 
tened, tapering; 5 to 8 cm. long and about 15 mm. thick, but often 
broken into shorter lengths; roughly marked by roundish eleva- 
tions and ridges and with the scars of stems and rootlets ; exter- 




Fig. 199. 



nally dark grayish-brown; very hard and compact, but breaks 
with abrupt and slightly fibrous fracture, showing light brownish- 
red interior; bark thick; wood-bundles small; pith about same 
thickness as the bark; no odor; taste astringent. — C. About 25 per 
cent tannin. — U. Astringent, tonic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. 



254 HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 

Imperatoria 

Masterwort is sometimes classed among the rhizomes, but be- 
longs more properly among the roots, where it has already been 
described and illustrated. The student is referred to Group XX 
for a consideration of this drug. 

TUBERS OR CORMS 

While tubers and corms resemble each other, a distinction may 
be made between them botanically, although it is not of much 
consequence as far as pharmacognosy is concerned. 

A tuber is a thickened and short rhizome or root-stock ; it usually 
has several internodes and therefore may have a number of lateral 
buds, as well as a terminal bud, as for instance in the potato. 

A corm is a very short, thickened, compact, fleshy, generally 
leafless underground stem or branch, often much thicker than it 
is long, which also produces buds, terminal or lateral or both; it 
sometimes consists only of one internode, in which case it pro- 
duces only the terminal bud ; when it consists of several internodes 
it may have lateral buds, occurring in the axils of leaves, which 
sometimes surround the corm as a membranous envelope. Some- 
times the corm is the dilated base of the annual stem, as in Tur- 
key Corn. 

The tuberous roots, as of aconite and jalap, are by some authors 
classed as tubers, but as they are really roots and not enlarged 
stems, and do not produce buds, although a small portion of adher- 
ing stem may have buds and may therefore permit of growth, as 
in aconite, the tuberous roots belong with the fleshy roots and not 
with the tubers or corms. 

Both corms and tubers may have traces of scaly leaves or leaf- 
scars on the sides or above and either rootlets or root-scars below. 

Some authors class corms and tubers with bulbs, considering 
that the presence or absence of fleshy leaf-bases is of insufficient 
importance to make a division. Other authors class corms and 
tubers, as well as bulbs, with the "gemmce" or leaf -buds, consid- 
ering the corms solid buds, the bulbs to be fleshy buds, while the 
leaf-buds are scaly buds. But corms and tubers are sufficiently 
distinct from the other structures mentioned, that they may 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 255 

readily be distinguished from them, as well as from short rhi- 
zomes, which they also somewhat resemble, and they are therefore 
separately grouped here. 

Both tubers and corms are commonly called "roots" in the 
trade, yet for the purposes of the pharmacognosist a distinction 
must be made and their real nature must be borne in mind. 

Corms and tubers may be divided: — 

( Whole 30 

Corms and tubers SHced 31 



GROUP XXX 

Whole Tubers and Corms 

Hard, tuberous, irregularly round or pear-shaped, dark brown. . . . Jalapa. 

Conical, blackish-brown, tuberous roots, single or joined in pairs. . Aconitum. 

Ovoid, brownish, wrinkled corms, with a groove on one side Colchicum. 

Single, round, small, hard, semi-translucent or opaque, yellow or 
brown tubers; sometimes two tubers joined with a smaller 
third one between Corydalis. 

Oval, slightly flattened or shrunken, semi-translucent and very 

hard Salep. 

Jalapa 

On account of the general habit of calling the pieces of jalap 
1 ' tubers, ' ' many students would naturally look here for this drug, 
and might be puzzled if they found no mention of it. Jalap con- 
sists of tuberous roots and is therefore described with the fleshy 
roots. (See Group XX.) 

Aconitum 

The remarks just made in reference to jalap apply also to this 
drug. (See Group XX.) 

Colchicum 

Occasionally the whole tubers of Colchicum occur in the trade 
or an occasional whole tuber may be found in the sliced corms as 
ordinarily sold. But Colchicum is usually sliced and is therefore 
described in the following group. (See Group XXXI.) 



256 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Corydalis 



N. Turkey Corn, Turkey Pea, Squirrel Corn. — 0. The tubers of 
Dicentra Canadensis (Bicuculla Canadensis); Papaveracece. — H. 
North America, north of Kentucky. — D. Round, from 3 to 12 mm. 
in diameter, resembling tears of inferior acacia gum ; of a tawny 
yellowish color, internally yellowish- white, semi-translucent; some 
tubers are dark brownish, opaque, and vary in size from 12 mm. 




Fig. 200. 

diameter down to the size of barley grains; still other tubers con- 
sist of two irregular concavo-convex tubers, between which a 
smaller rounded or flattened third tuber is found; all forms are 
hard and horny, inodorous and persistently bitter. — C. Four alka- 
loids, an acrid resin, bitter extractive, etc. The Eclectic prepara- 
tion Corydalin is an impure mixture of alkaloids and resins. — U. 
Tonic, diuretic and alterative. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. 



Salep 

N. Salep. — 0. The prepared tubers of Orchis mascula, 0. mili- 
taris, 0. morio, and other determined and undetermined varieties of 
Orchis; Orchidacece, sub-order Ophrydece. — H. Germany and 
France. — D. Irregularly oval, globular or flattened roundish 
tubers; sometimes deeply wrinkled or shrunken; about 2 cm. long; 
hard, heavy, yellowish or yellowish-gray, translucent; fracture 
homogeneous, horny, shining; inodorous; taste insipid mucilagi- 
nous. — C. Bassorin, starch, etc. — U. Nutritive and demulcent. A 
mucilage made from salep is occasionally employed as a vehicle for 
acrid or irritating remedies. 

The tubers of salep are of gelatinous fleshy consistency when 
fresh and contain starch grains. They are prepared for trade by 



handbook of pharmacognosy 



257 



scalding in boiling Avater and then rapidly drying in ovens; the 
starch is swelled and altered to a paste in the cells and to this is 
due the horny appearance of the drug. 

A larger and darker-colored variety than that above described 
was formerly brought from Oriental countries. 




Fig. 201. 

A variety which is palmately lobed is obtained from 0. latifolia, 
0. maculata, etc., and was formerly gathered separately and sold as 
Radix palma? Christi. Tubers of this kind are sometimes, although 
rarely, found mixed with the ordinary trade variet} T described 
above. 

One part of poAvdered salep boiled with forty parts of water 
forms a thick jelly on cooling. The poAA T dered salep should be 
thinly spread over the surface of the boiling water from the end 
of a spatula, otherwise it will lump and prevent the making of a 
perfect infusion. 

GROUP XXXI 

Sliced Corms 

Kidney-shaped grayish-white slices . . Colchicum. 

Transverse slices with dark-gray epidermis and mealy-white 

surfaces Arum. 



Colchici Cormus 

N. Commonly, though erroneously, called Colchicum Root. — 
0. The tuber of Colchicum autumnale; LiUacece. — H. Europe. — D. 
The AAmole tuber is rarely found in the drug trade. The Avhole corm 



258 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



is about 3 cm. high, ovoid, with a groove on one side in which, in 
the fresh state, the lateral bud rests, which forms the next season's 
corm. But usually the drug consists of the corm cut into slices and 
then dried ; these slices are generally transverse, but longitudinal 
slices also occur. The transverse slices are kidney-shaped, about 25 
mm. in the longest diameter and about 2 mm. thick; one surface of 
the upper and under slices and the edges of the intermediate slices 
are covered with a brownish epidermis, while the cut surfaces are 
grayish or grayish-white and speckled with slightly darker dots 




Fig. 202. 



(the sections of fibro-vascular bundles, endogenous arrangement) ; 
breaks with abrupt mealy fracture ; inodorous and with sweetish- 
bitter and somewhat acrid taste. — C. Colchicine, alkaloid, of which 
the drug should yield not less than 0.35 per cent. — U. Cathartic 
and diuretic, mainly used as antarthritic in gout and rheumatism. 
Dose: 0.1 to 0.5 grams. 

Colchicum corm which is dark-colored or horny should be re- 
jected. In the illustration the central figure is an upper transverse 
slice, the four corner figures are of inner transverse slices, the 
upper middle and left-hand middle figures show longitudinal outer 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



259 



slices and incidentally give an idea of the appearance of the whole 
corms, while the middle figure in the lower row shows the groove 
in a longitudinal slice; the right-hand middle figure is an inner 
longitudinal slice ; all natural size. 

Colchicum is very subject to injury by insects, and should be well 
preserved and often inspected to protect it. 

Arum 

N. Indian Turnip. — 0. The tubers or corms of Arum triphyllum 

(Ariscema triphyllum); Aracece. — H. North America. — D. Occurs 

in transverse slices, from 2 to 5 cm. in diameter and 3 to 6 mm. thick ; 




Fig. 203. 



the outer edge covered with epidermis is dark gray and beset with 
rootlets; the cut surfaces are white; the drug breaks with an 
abrupt mealy fracture ; no odor ; taste acrid. — C. A volatile acrid 
principle, which is exceedingly pungent in the fresh corm, but 
gradually is lost on keeping, until the drug becomes almost or en- 
tirely inert. — U. Stimulant, expectorant, diaphoretic and carmina- 
tive. Dose : 1 to 2 grams three or four times daily. 

The illustration shows three slices, natural size, and a few starch 
grains, enlarged. 

European Arum, from Arum maculatum, is similar to the Ameri- 
can drug. 



260 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



BULBS 



A bulb is a form of stem resembling the corm as to its solid parr, 
but the bulk of it consists of thick or fleshy leaf -scales surround- 
ing the buds which are found at the apex of growth within. These 
leafy envelopes may be narrow and arranged like shingles on a 
roof, overlapping each other (scaly bulb) or they are wide and each 
one is wrapped more or less nearly completely around all the 
others within (tunicated or coated bulb) ; the latter arrangement is 
seen in the onion, and it is the arrangement found in all medicinal 
bulbs. 

Bulbs may be grouped, for purposes of pharmacognosy, as whole 
bulbs and as sliced bulbs. 



JWh 

••[Sli( 



, Whole 32 

Bulbs.. A gHced 33 



GROUP XXXII 

Whole Bulbs 

Only one bulb always comes into trade whole — Garlic. The 
most important bulb from a medicinal point of view is Squill, 
and this can sometimes be had fresh and whole, especially from 
florists for cultivation as a pot-plant, but in the drug trade this 
drug usually comes sliced and dried, and therefore belongs in the 
next group. The onion is sometimes mentioned in works of phar- 
macognosy, but is seldom used medicinally. 

Largo, juicy, greenish or pinkish-white bulbs, the external scales, 

when present, pinkish-brown Scilla. 

White bulbs, with stem, coated with a few dry, membranous, white 

scales enclosing about eight bulblets Allium. 

Scilla 

In some pharmacopoeias the fresh bulb is demanded as the drug. 
It is a large, pear-shaped, tunicated bulb, resembling a large onion 
in appearance, but without the odor; up to 15 cm. long and 10 to 
15 cm. broad; the external scales are pinkish-brown, the inner 
scales are greenish or pinkish-white, juicy and translucent. The 
whole bulb is rarely found in the drug trade in our country and 
the reader will find this drug described in the next group. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



261 



Allium 

N. Garlic. — 0. The fresh bulb of Allium sativum; Liliacece. — H. 
Cultivated everywhere. — D. The illustration shows the bulb in 
natural size, except that the stems are usually 10 to 15 cm. long so 
that the bulbs can be tied in bundles and hung up in a dry, cool 
place, in which manner they can be kept fresh through the year. 
The middle figure shows the stem with its dry corm-like disk and 
with one of its bulblets attached. On this disk there are about eight 




Fig. 204. 



bulblets (called "cloves of garlic"), arranged as in the left-hand 
figure, and surrounded with a few membranous scales which extend 
around the stem above. "When wanted for use the scales and stem 
are rejected and only the "cloves" are used. Garlic has a pecu- 
liarly pungent, penetrating and persistent odor, resembling asafet- 
ida, and a pungent acrid taste. — C. Volatile oil. — U. Blennorrhetic, 
carminative and stomachic; wholesome and appetizing and used 
as an ingredient in most table sauces. Used in larger quantities 
it is objectionable on account of the odor it imparts to the breath 
and the flatulence it produces. Dose: About 2 grams. 



262 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

GROUP XXXIII 

Sliced Bulbs 

Scilla 

N. Squill. — 0. The bulb of Scilla maritima (Urginea maritima) ; 
TAliacece. — H. Mediterranean countries. — D. After the outer par- 
tially dry and brownish scales have been removed the bulb is 
sliced in the same manner as onions are sliced for culinary pur- 
poses. The small inner scales are rejected and the intermediate 
scales are separated and dried; these latter then constitute the 
drug. Narrow slices up to 5 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad and 
about 3 mm. thick in the thickest part ; often contorted or broken ; 
whitish with a yellowish or pinkish tint; slightly diaphanous ; brit- 
tle and pulverizable when dry, but often somewhat flexible and 
horny on account of its hygroscopic character which causes it to 




Fig. 205. 

absorb water with great avidity ; if exposed to moisture it becomes 
darker-colored and less valuable; no odor; taste mucilaginous, 
bitter and acrid. — C. Scillipicrin, scillitoxin and scillin. — U. In 
small doses, diuretic and expectorant; in large doses, emetic and 
cathartic. Dose: 0.05 to 0.1 gram as an expectorant; up to 0.5 
gram as an emetic; best given in syrup or fluid extract. 



TWIGS OE BRANCHES. 

Twigs or branches are parts of the ascending axes of plants, and 
therefore have the structure of stems, that is, they have nodes and 
internodes and if leaves are not present they show leaf -scars or occa- 
sionally leaf-scars with undeveloped leaf-buds. All the medicinal 
twigs are from exogenous woody plants and therefore show the char- 
acteristic structure of that class of stems. 

Some drugs consist of twigs with leaves attached; these leaves 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 263 

may be ordinary foliage leaves, or the peculiar scaly leaves of some 
conifers. Some twigs come into trade without any leaves attached. 
These twigs are not always the drugs as recognized by the pharma- 
copoeias or other authoritative works, but may be simply gathered 
as twigs, when in reality only the leaves are wanted. Leafy twigs 
should not be confounded with the drugs of Group IX, flowering 
tops, which are mostly herbaceous branches with flowers, or with 
both leaves and flowers. The narcotic herbs as found in bales usual- 
ly are the smaller branches with leaves and sometimes flowers, 
although these drugs are officially described as the "leaves" of the 
respective plants. 

GROUP XXXIV. 

Leafy Twigs. 

Many of the drugs used as "flowering tops" or as "leaves" may 
be mistaken for leafy branches ; such drugs must be remembered 
and if a drug taken to be a leafy branch is not found mentioned 
here, it may be looked for under Group IX, or under Groups 
XL VII, XL VIII, XLIX or L. A few drugs consisting wholly or 
mainly of inflorescences, as cusso, may also be mistaken for leafy 
twigs; such would be found mentioned under Group LI. Some- 
times an inferior Cannabis Indica, consisting mainly of stems, 
might be looked for here. 

Twigs with obovate or oval, coriaceous, slightly serrate 

leaves Gaultheria. 

Twigs mixed with coriaceous, oblanceolate or cuneate-lanceo- 
late leaves, with margin serrate at apex and entire near 
the base Chimaphila. 

Twigs and leaves agglutinated into broken masses with 

exuded gum-resin; leaves lanceolate, dentate Eriodyction. 

Brownish-green twigs with oval, thick coriaceous, and deeply 

wrinkled leaves; leaves usually detached from twigs. . . . Phoradendron. 

Twigs with scythe-shaped, long, light-grayish-green leaves .. Eucalyptus. 

Gaultheria. 

N. Gaultheria, Winter green. — 0. The leaves of Gaultheria pro- 
cumbens; Ericacece. Only the leaves should be used, but the drug, 
as it comes into trade, always consists of the twigs with the leaves. 
— H. North America, from far north southward to Georgia and 



264 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



westward to Minnesota. — D. The illustration gives a good idea 
of the appearance of the drug, natural size ; the twigs are slender, 
flexible, and much tangled in the drug, and unless packed tightly 
in the bale the upper part of the bale is apt to contain mainly 
twigs and the lower part most of the leaves; the leaves are 




Fig. 206. 



obovate or oval, short-petiolate, obscurely serrate with teeth hard, 
sharp and appressed, coriaceous or leathery, smooth and glossy, 
varying in color from green to brown; odor fragrant and taste 
pleasantly aromatic. — C. Volatile oil, methyl salicylate, tannin, 
etc. — U. Stimulant and slightly astringent. Dose; 2 to 5 grams, 
in infusion or fluid extract. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



265 



Chimaphila. 

N. Chimaphila, Pipsissewa, Prince's Pine. — 0. Leaves of Chima- 
phila umbellata; Ericacece. The leaves alone should be used, but 
twigs are always admixed. — H. North America, Nova Scotia to 




Fig. 207. 

Georgia, west to the Pacific. — D. The illustration gives a good idea 
of the drug, natural size ; the leaves are cuneate-lanceolate, or 
oblanceolate, with margin serrate at apex and entire near the 
base, coriaceous, smooth, dark-green to brown, with little odor 
and a bitterish, slightly astringent taste. — C. Chimaphilin, arbutin, 
a small proportion of tannic acid, etc. — U. Alterative, astringent 



266 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



and tonic. Dose: 1 to 5 grams or more, in infusion or in fluid 
extract. 

The two drugs just described, Gaultheria and Chimaphila, are 
a good illustration of the necessity of using Latin scientific instead 
of common English or vernacular names. Both of them are called 
"Wintergreen," so that much confusion arises from the applica- 
tion of this same name to two different drugs ; and in my own ex- 
perience these particular two drugs caused me more trouble in 
this regard than all other drugs put together, before I finally 
learned to call only Gaultheria by the name of Wintergreen. In 
the text, therefore, Wintergreen is not given as one of the English 
names of Chimaphila, and throughout this book care is taken to 
apply an English name only to the one drug to which it is most 
commonly applied, even when the same name is used for several 
drugs. 

Eriodyction. 

N. Eriodyction, Yerba Santa. — 0. Leaves of Eriodictyon Cali- 




Fig. 208. 



fornicum (Eriodictyon glutinosum) ; Hydrophyllacew. The leaves 
are always mixed with the twigs. — H. California. — D. The illus- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



267 



t rat ion shows a specimen of the drug in natural size, showing the 
manner in which leaves and twigs are agglutinated, and also one 
leaf whole in natural size; frequently, however, the leaves are 
smaller, more broken and agglutinated into almost formless 
masses, or broken into small fragments. The small drawings 
show the venation on the lower surface of a leaf, after having 
removed the resin by soaking in warm soda lye, then washing 
and drying; also a portion of epidermis with plain hair and a 
glandular hair. The leaves are lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, 
acute, irregularly dentate, upper surface smooth, grayish-green 
or brownish and glossy from resin, lower surface grayish, netted- 
veined and hairy; odor fragrant; taste aromatic, sweetish. — C. 
Acrid resin and small quantity of volatile oil, etc. — U. Stimulant 
blennorrhetic and expectorant. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. 

Yerba Santa is largely used, in combination with other drugs, 
in the manufacture of vehicles to disguise the bitterness of qui- 
nine, etc. 

Phoradendron. 

N. Phoradendron, American Mistletoe. — 0. The whole parasitic 
plant, Phoradendron flavescens; Loranihacece. — H. United States, 




Fig. 209 



from New Jersey to Missouri and Southwest. — D. See the illus- 
tration. The drug consists of various-sized, much-branched frag- 



268 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ments of twigs of a yellowish-green or brownish-green color, 
deeply wrinkled longitudinally, and showing section as illus- 
trated ; the leaves are of the same color as the twigs, thickly coria- 
ceous and deeply and irregularly wrinkled, and often broken from 
the twigs; the odor is heavy, disagreeable and the taste is bitter 
and somewhat astringent. — C. A tenacious substance called 
"viscin" (bird-lime), resin, fixed oil, tannin, etc. — U. Has been 
recommended as a parturient; also as an astringent in uterine 
hemorrhage. Dose 1 to 5 grams, best as fluid extract. 

The European drug, the twigs and leaves of Viscum album, 
closely resembles the American Mistletoe. 

Eucalyptus. 

Eucalyptus is usually a mixture of twigs, scythe-shaped leaves 
and buds as it comes in the bales, but it is generally garbled before 
it is sold to the retail drug trade so that it then consists of leaves 
alone. It is mentioned here, but will be described fully under 
Group XL VII. 

GROUP XXXV. 

Scaly Twigs. 

Scaly twigs are obtained from several evergreen conifers ; they 
resemble each other rather closely and consist of twigs, with four 
rows of scales (scaly leaves) which are closely appressed to the 
twigs. Examine scales with a lens. 

Scales with, a longitudinal ridge and projecting gland Thuja. 

Scales with, a longitudinal groove Sabina. 

Thuja. 

N. Thuja, Arbor Vitas. — 0. The fresh terminal twigs of Thuja 
occidentalis; Coniferce. — H. Canada and Northern United States ; 
frequently cultivated as an ornamental evergreen shrub.— D. 
Much-branched, flattish two-edged twigs with scaly leaves ap- 
pressed in four rows, broadly ovate, bluntly pointed, those on 
the flat sides opened flat, those on the edges doubled or folded, 
the flat ones with an elevated ridge and a raised and rounded oil 
or balsam-gland; the illustration shows two twigs enlarged, and 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



269 



a few of the scales enlarged about 5 diameters; odor balsamic 
and taste pungent, camphoraceous and bitter. — C. Volatile oil, 
resin, etc. — U. Alterative, blennorrhetic ; externally as a stimu- 




Fig. 210. 



lant to indolent ulcers, 
a day; best in fluid 
cough medicines. 



Dose: 2 to 5 grams, three or four times 
extract. Much used as an ingredient of 



Sabina. 

N. Savin. — 0. The terminal twigs of Juniper us Sabina; Coni- 
ferce. The twigs should be collected in spring. — H. Northern Asia, 





Europe and America, — D. Branched, rounded or sub-quadrangu- 
lar twigs with four rows of scaly leaves, imbricate, lanceolate and 
acute ; scales about 2 mm. long, with a longitudinal groove or 



270 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

depression on the outer surface, or back ; the color of a fresh 
drug should be greenish, not brown; the odor is terebinthinate 
and the taste disagreeably bitterish and acrid. The drawing 
shows the scales magnified five diameters. (See Fig. 211.) — C. 
Volatile oil, resin, tannin, etc. — U. Irritant diuretic, emmenagogue 
and vermifuge. It is sometimes administered in large doses to 
produce abortion, and then often leads to dangerous or fatal gas- 
trointestinal inflammation. A dose sufficiently large to produce 
abortion is also very apt to produce death. Dose: 0.3 to 1 gram. 
Terminal twigs of common juniper, Jumperus communis, are 
said to be sometimes substituted for those of Juniperus Sabina; 
the general appearance is similar, but the scaly leaves are less 
pointed, even obtuse, and on the back is a groove, at the bottom and 
lower end of which is a gland, as seen in the accompanying draw- 
ing, (Fig. 212). This represents the leaves of common juniper 
magnified five diameters. 



GROUP XXXVI. 

Naked or Leafless Twigs. 

Only one drug consisting of naked twigs is commonly to be found 
in the drug-market — Dulcamara. The fresh, or recently dried, 
flowering twigs or branches of Night-Blooming Cereus must be 
obtained from florists, etc., as they are not an article of commerce. 
Broom, which should be the flowering tops, consists occasionally of 
slender naked twigs, which are in reality the axes of inflorescences 
from which the flowers have been broken. 

Short, pale, grayish-green pieces of twigs, with smooth-cut ends; 

usually hollow Dulcamara. 

Pale-green, five or six-angled stems, with clusters of spines on 

the edges Cereus. 

Dulcamara 

N. Bitter-sweet. — 0. The first, second and third year's twigs of 
Solarium Dulcamara; Solanacece. — H. Europe and North America. 
— D. The twigs are chopped into lengths of about three to five 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



271 



centimeters, and are 1 centimeter or less in thickness, the average 
thickness being about five or six millimeters; the pieces are cylin- 
drical, somewhat angular from deep longitudinal wrinkles or 
grooves due to drying, marked with alternate leaf-scars and small 
buds, and the pith is generally torn and shrunken so that many 
of the pieces appear to be hollow ; the external bark is light 
greenish-gray, the middle and inner bark is green in fresh and 
yellowish in old drug, and the wood is yellowish or greenish- 
gray; according to the age of the twig when gathered; it has one 
or two (rarely three) annual rings, the Avood being radiate with 
many fine medullary rays and containing large ducts; the odor 
is faint, the taste is at first bitter, then sweetish. — C, A glucoside, 




dulcamarin, and an amorphous bitter substance from which the 
alkaloid solanin has been isolated. — U. Alterative, especially use- 
ful in non-syphilitic scaly skin diseases; in large doses anodyne 
and narcotic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract. 

Cereus Grandiflorus. 



N. Night-Blooming Cereus. The preparations of this drug are 
commonly called for under the name " Cactus Grandiflorus". — 0. 
The fresh stems and flowers of Cereus grandiflorus; Cactacece. — 
H. Tropical America ; cultivated. — D. This drug cannot readily be 
obtained in the drug trade, as the fresh stem is wanted. Occasion- 
ally, however, the dried stems may be bought. The genuine drug 



272 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



consists of branches of various lengths, about iy 2 to 2 cm. thick, 
five to seven-angled, the edges beset with radiating clusters of 6 
to 8 short spines, and at irregular distances apart there are branched 
rootlets; the wood is thin and the bark consists of spongy paren- 
chyma; odor none, taste acrid. — C. An alkaloid (?) cactine. — U. 
Diuretic, in dropsies, but mainly valued as a cardiac stimulant. 
Dose : about 0.5 gram, in tincture. 

Fresh Cereus Grandiflorus Stems. — As the fresh stems should 
be used, it is best to obtain them from florists, who sometimes have 
more than they require for their business; in this way, however, 




Fig. 214. 

only small quantities are obtainable. Manufacturers of pharma- 
ceuticals frequently obtain the drug from Mexico, or the West 
Indies, the flowers and branches being crushed and packed in 
barrels and covered Avith a definite proportion of alcohol, so that 
it is a simple matter afterwards to add the menstruum necessary 
to make the commercial tincture. 

It is more than probable that much of the tincture sold is made 
from other and inferior or even worthless varieties of cactus. 



PARTS OF BRANCHES. 

As already explained in previous pages, the exogenous stem 
consists of three parts, an internal portion of soft-walled and usu- 
ally polyhedral cells which is called the medulla or pith, the 
wood, consisting of the xylem of the fibro-vascular bundles and the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 273 

medullary rays, and lastly, the bark, which is all that part which 
lies outside of the cambium. Some drugs consist of pith alone, 
some only of wood, and many are barks; each of these parts of 
branches or stems must therefore be separately considered. 



GROUP XXXVII. 

Piths. 

There is only one pith which is a drug, namely, the pith of sassa- 
fras, but the pith of elder is sometimes kept in drug stores, and 
probably always in stores dealing in scientific instruments; it is 
also commonly used by microscopists for holding delicate tissues in 
the microtome, for section-cutting. Both piths are therefore apt 
to be met with by the student of pharmacognosy. 

Slender cylindrical, sometimes curved pieces, spongy, 

white Sassafras Medulla. 

Similar to above, but thicker and yellowish, in color .... Sambuci Medulla. 

Sassafras Medulla. 

N. Sassafras Pith. — 0. The pith of Sassafras variifolium; Jjaur- 
acece. — H. North America. — D. Slender, cylindrical or semi-cylin- 
drical pieces, often curved or twisted, very light and spongy; two 
to three centimeters long and about 4 to 6 mm. thick ; consists of 
thin-walled polyhedral cells; without odor and with insipid taste, 
— 0. Mucilage. — U. When macerated with water it forms a muci- 
lage which is not precipitated by alcohol. This mucilage is used 
as a menstruum or vehicle for other substances, especially for 
eye washes. 

Sambuci Medulla. 

Elder pith (from Sambucus Canadensis; Caprifoliacea?) is in 
larger and thicker pieces than sassafras pith, and is of a yellowish 
color. It is composed of similar polyhedral cells, but is not muci- 
laginous. Used only for physical experiments, and for holding deli- 
cate objects for cutting sections for the microscope, as already men- 
tioned. 



274 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



WOODS. 



Strictly speaking, wood is that tissue in plants which is made up 
of lignified cells, but it is generally considered to be all that part 
of exogenous stems which is within the cambium layer. Commer- 
cially, at least, this is the meaning of "wood" in the drug trade 
as well as in the lumber trade. By reference to the description of 
the section of an exogenous stem the relation of the fibro-vascular 
bundles to each other and to the other structures in the stem will be 
understood. (See page 274.) In the accompanying drawing the 
structure of the wood-cylinder is represented somewhat diagram- 
matically. In the interior is seen the pith, which is very small 




Fig. 215. 

proportionately in logs from which ' ' wood ' ' is obtained ; from this 
pith the medullary rays radiate showing as radiating lines on the 
transverse section, but on the outside of the wood-cylinder these 
medullary rays form only short perpendicular lines, as they are 
not extended far in a perpendicular direction; this is also the ap- 
pearance of the medullary rays in tangential sections. Medullary 
rays vary in width, in some cases being only a single cell wide, in 
other woods being two, three or more cells wide; this character 
of the medullary rays is of diagnostic value in some woods, notably 
so in quassia. 

As the stem grows, the cambium and bark and a few rings of 
wood next to the cambium are the living tissues ; the inner portion 
of the stem ceases to take part in active vegetative processes and 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 275 

merely serves for mechanical support. The outer layers of wood, 
which are filled with protoplasm and cell-sap and take part in the 
vegetative life of the tree, are usually white and constitute the 
alburnum or sap-wood, which is of little value, either as lumber 
or as drugs. As layer after layer of wood is added year after 
year, the inner layers are correspondingly withdrawn from the 
vegetative processes of the plant by an absorption of protoplasm 
and cell-sap and a deposit of extractive, resinous and coloring mat- 
ters, etc., in the place of the protoplasm, and these inner layers 
of wood then constitute the duramen or heart-wood. The heart- 
wood may he of the same color as the sap-wood, but often differs 
in color; in red cedar, for instance, the outer wood is white and 
the heart- wood is red ; in walnut the heart- wood is brown ; in guaiac 
wood the heart-wood is dark olive-green or greenish-brown; in 
ebony the heart-wood is black; etc. The formed materials stored 
in the cells of the heart-wood render many woods valuable, either 
because these substances have medicinal virtues or because they 
can be used for dyeing; in either case, woods containing them be- 
come valuable as drugs. 

The stems of the trees of the temperate zone, where there is com- 
plete cessation of growth during winter, are marked with perfect 
concentric annual rings; stems of trees of tropical climes, where 
growth is not thus completely suspended for a season, but goes on 
all the year, have no such rings, although they may be marked with 
"spurious" rings, as seen, for instance, in the section of -a false 
pareira brava, shown on page 171. With the exception of juniper 
wood, which is, however, rarely used, all the woods of the drug 
trade are from tropical trees and have obscure rings ; this, however, 
is of little importance, as all the woods sold as drugs are sold as 
shavings or raspings, and it is impossible, therefore, to determine 
this feature in the fragments that constitute the drugs. 

Woods may show a uniform structure of wood-cells under the 
microscope, the cells varying in size, but otherwise alike, and trav- 
ersed at more or less regular intervals by the medullary rays ; such 
woods are close-grained and even on section. Other woods have 
large ducts interspersed among the wood-cells, and such woods are 
more porous and show large openings on transverse section when 



276 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

examined with a lens; the peculiar grouping of these ducts some- 
times aids in the recognition of the wood. 

But the most easily observed, and at the same time sufficiently 
characteristic feature of woods for recognition, is color, and we 
group woods as follows : 






White 38 

'^Colored 39 



GROUP XXXVIII 

White Woods 

Only one white wood, quassia, is of importance. Some authors 
mention S ant alum album as a white wood, but it is merely the sap- 
wood of the same plant from which Santalum citrinum is obtained 
and is seldom met with, and is worthless. 

Coarse, light, white shavings or raspings Quassia 

Quassia 

N. Quassia. — 0. The wood of Picrasma excelsa; Simarubiacece. — 
H. Jamaica, West Indies. — D. Quassia wood is imported in billets 
of various sizes, dense and tough, of medium hardness, porous, 
with minute pith and narrow medullary rays; in the drug trade, 
however, it occurs as coarse, light, white shavings or raspings, odor- 
less and intensely bitter. — C. A bitter principal called quassin. It 
contains no tannin and the infusion is therefore compatible with 
iron salts. — U. A pure bitter tonic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, in in- 
fusion. 

The quassia used in Europe is the wood of Quassia amara, of 
the same natural order as the plant which yields the drug used in 
this country. The wood of Quassia amara is called in the trade 
"Surinam Quassia," the shrub from which it is obtained being 
indigenous to Surinam. It resembles the Jamaica quassia which 
is used in this country, especially when in the form of shavings. 

The illustrations show Jamaica quassia in transverse (Fig. 216) 
and tangential (Fig. 217) sections; it will be noticed that the 
medullary rays vary from one row of cells to two or three rows 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



277 



of cells in width. In Surinam quassia the medullary rays are 
rarely wider than one row of cells. This enables us to distinguish 




Fig. 216. 




Fig. 217. 



between the two kinds, although from a practical point of view 
there is no object in doing so, as the medicinal value of the two 
kinds of quassia is alike. 



278 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Sandal Wood (the wood of Santalum album, Santalacew), is im- 
ported, but does not reach the retailer, as it is only used for the 
preparation of volatile oil. Only the sap-wood is white and this is 
worthless, as it contains no oil. The heart-wood varies in color 
from yellowish to brown, and is described by some authors as 
Santalum citrinum. 

GROUP XXXIX 

Colored Woods 

Some of the darker colored woods, like guaiac wood, contain but 
little soluble coloring matter, so that their solutions will not 
deeply stain fabrics moistened with them. Others, like logwood, 
contain an abundance of coloring matter, so that they can 
be used as dye-stuffs; and, in fact, many of the woods which are 
used as drugs have no medicinal value, their whole commercial im- 
portance depending on their being dye-stuffs. Before the intro- 
duction of the aniline dyes it was necessary for the pharmacist not 
only to be acquainted with these dye-woods, but also with the 
manner of using them, with the mordants to be used, etc.; now 
they are seldom called for in drug stores, although still exten- 
sively employed by dyers. 

Greenish-brown raspings, mixed with some white particle s.G-uaiaci Lignum. 

Yellowish or reddish-gray raspings Juniperi Lignum. 

Deep purplish-red or brownish-red shavings, or coarse 

powder Santalum Rubrum. 

Red or reddish-brown raspings, the cut surfaces having 

resinous appearance Fernambuco. 

Purplish-black or brownish-red shavings or raspings, often 

with a greenish-metallic luster Haematoxylon. 

Brown or yellowish-brown chips or raspings Lignum Citrinum. 

Guaiaci Lignum 

N. Guaiacum Wood, Lignum Vitae. — 0. The heart-wood of Guaia- 
cum officinale and G. sanctum; Zygophyllacece. — H. West Indies. — 
D. This wood is imported in large logs or billets and is much 
used in the arts for the manufacture of articles which must stand 
much rough usage, as for instance ten-pins and balls for bowling. 
It is admirably adapted for such uses because the wood is firm 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 279 

and the bundles interlace and cross each other often at angles 
of even 60°, so that it is practically impossible to split the wood 
" along the grain" in any direction. The wood is very hard, 
heavier than water, resinous, brown or brownish-green ; the whit- 
ish sap-wood should be rejected. The drug consists of the rasp- 
ings and shavings, which are the waste from the turners ' benches ; 
these raspings are greenish-brown, containing occasionally a 




Fig. 218. 

few fragments of the whitish sap-wood; on exposure to nitric 
acid fumes they become dark bluish-green; odorless unless 
heated, when the drug has a balsamic odor; the taste is slightly 
acrid. — C. Twenty to twenty-five per cent of resin. — U. Altera- 
tive diaphoretic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams in fluid extract. 
The figure shows a transverse section of the wood. 

Juniperi Lignum 

N. Juniper Wood. — 0. The wood of Juniperus communis; Con- 
iferce. — H. Northern Hemisphere. — D. The wood is distinctly 
marked with annual rings, the fall part of one and the spring 
portion of another being here shown in transverse section; all 
the cells are marked with pits, as in the pitted cells already 
described on page 85, and there are no ducts. The drug consists 



280 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



of raspings of a reddish or yellowish-gray color; odor and taste 
similar to but weaker than juniper berries. — C. Volatile oil and 
resin. — U. Diuretic, stimulant and emmenagogue. Used only as 
an ingredient in alterative diuretic teas or species. 
Fig. 219 shows a transverse section of the wood. 




Fig. 219. 

Santalum Rubrum 

N. Red Saunders. — 0. The wood of Pterocarpus santalinus; 
Legauminosce. — H. East India. — D. The heart-wood is imported in 
hard, massive pieces, heavy (sinks in water), brownish-black ex- 
ternally and reddish-brown internally and susceptible of a fine 
polish. The drug consists of chips or, more frequently, of rasp- 
ings in the form of a coarse, irregular, brownish-red powder; 
almost tasteless and odorless. — C. A coloring principle, santalin, 
which is soluble in alcohol but insoluble in water. — U. Employed 
as a coloring agent for elixirs, tinctures, etc. 



Fernambuco 

N. Brazil Wood, Pernambuco or Fernambuco Wood. — 0. The 
heart-wood of several varieties of Caesalpinia, especially of C. 
echinata; Leguminosce. — H. Brazil. — D. The heart-wood, without 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 281 

the bark and sap-wood, is imported in large logs, externally dark 
reddish-brown, internally lighter in color; texture fine-grained; 
surfaces resinous; hard and susceptible of a fine polish. The 
drug consists of raspings, with a slightly sweetish taste, but 
scarcely any odor. — C. A coloring principle; brasilin, which is 



Fig. 220. 

soluble in water, alcohol and ether, coloring them yellowish; by 
adding alkalies to its solutions, these assume a beautiful red 
color. — U. Fernambuco is sometimes used as a test-solution, but 
is mainly used as a red dye-stuff. 

The figure shows a transverse section of the wood. 

Hsematoxylon 

N. Logwood, Campeachy Wood. — 0. The heart-wood of Hcema- 
toxylon Campechianum; Legaminosce. — H. Campeachy, Honduras 
and other parts of tropical America. — D. Imported in logs which 
have been deprived of the bark and the yellowish sap-wood; these 
logs are very heavy and hard, externally bluish-black, internally 
reddish-brown, coarse-grained, but susceptible of a good polish. 
The drug consists of chips or coarse raspings of a brownish-red 
color, the different particles sometimes showing a greenish sheen 
or luster ; taste sweetish, astringent, and odor faint, agreeable. — 



282 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

0. Tannic acid and hematoxylin, a coloring principle much used 
as a stain in microscopical work. — U. Logwood is used as an as- 




Fig. 221. 

tringent, mainly in the form of extract, of which the dose is 
about one gram. It is also used in the arts as a dye-stuff. 
The figure shows a radial section of the wood. 

Lignum Citrinum 

N. Fustic. — 0. A yellow dye-wood obtained from Morus tinc- 
toria (Chlorophora tinctoria) ; Urticacece. — H. West Indies and 
South America. — D. The stems deprived of bark and most of the 
sap-wood are imported in large, heavy logs, which are brown 
externally and yellowish-brown internally. In the trade it oc- 
curs in shavings or raspings of a deep yellowish color. — C. Fise- 
tin (fustin? morin?), yellow pigments used to dye fabrics yellow. 
Not used as medicine. 

BARKS 

Botanically, bark is that part of an exogenous plant-axis 
(stem or root) which is outside of the cambium zone. 

From the standpoint of the pharmacognosist, however, we must 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 283 

modify and limit the meaning of the word "bark," and we define 
it as that part of a woody exogenous plant-axis (stem or root) 
which grows outside of the cambium zone, and which is detached 
from the wood-cylinder at the cambium zone, so that it is an article 
of trade by itself. 

The Latin word cortex (ids, 3, m.) means "bark" as well as 
"rind" or "peel" and is applied as a title to the class of drugs 
now under consideration, as well as to the rinds of fruits, as when 
we speak of cortex aurantii, cortex granati, etc. In English we 




Fig. 222. 

make a distinction betAveen these widely different structures, 
calling them by different names, but the use of the same word in 
the Latin titles leads to confusion, and the student should fix in 
his mind the conception of "bark" as being only that part of an 
exogenous plant-axis just described. 

We have already studied the structure of stems and roots in 
the earlier part of these notes, but w r e must now again consider 
some facts already mentioned, with especial reference to this 
class of drugs. The accompanying figure represents somewhat 
diagrammatically the structure of an exogenous plant-axis; the 



284 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

cambium layer (d) separates the wood-cylinder, which consists of 
the pith, xylem (c) and medullary rays (a), from the bark. The 
latter consists of an outer epidermis in the young plant, or a corky 
layer (h) in older plants ; next within this is a layer of parenchyma 
cells (f) and then a circle of alternate bast portions of fibro-vascu- 
lar bundles (e) and outer parts of medullary rays (g). 

The barks of commerce are rarely obtained from first year's 
twigs with a structure as represented in section in the drawing. 
In perennial exogenous stems a new ring of wood is formed each 
year from the inner part of the cambium, the annual rings being 
thus added one after another; the fibro-vascular bundles divide 
and subdivide laterally, so that even after many years the width 




Fig. 223. 

of each bundle is no more, and perhaps even less, than at the end 
of the first year. At the same time the cambium cells are forming 
new bark, and if we examine a section of an endogenous stem of 
several years' growth we find it to appear similar to the section 
represented in Fig. 223, in which the asterisk indicates the cam- 
bium zone, all within which is conventionally spoken of as 
"wood" while all without it is "bark." 

If we cut a willow twig in spring, during the time of rapid 
growth when the tissues are fresh and soft, choosing a straight, 
smooth piece and preferably a single internode for the experi- 
ment, and then beat the surface gently with the side of the knife- 
handle, we bruise and loosen the cambium cells so that we may 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 285 

slip a tubular outer piece from the solid cylinder of wood; the 
tube thus separated is the bark. If Ave make transverse sections, 
first, of the whole thickness of a willow twig, then of a piece of 
the bark and another of the wood-cylinder from which the bark 
was removed, as explained, and compare them with each other, 
Ave obtain a good conception of the relation of the bark to the 
other parts of the plant-axis. We see that the Avood-cylinder 
consists of the pith, the xylem or Avood portions of the fibro- 
vascular bundles and the medullary rays, as far outAvard as the 
cambium layer; and on the outside we find portions of the cam- 
bium tissue Avhich was torn in removing the bark ; we also see that 
the bark consists of the phloem or bast portions of the fibro- 
vascular bundles alternating Avith the prolongations of the medul- 
lary rays, of a layer of parenchyma surrounding them, and an 
outer corky layer, Avhile on the inner side Ave find also remnants 
of torn cambium tissues. 

After this description it is almost superfluous to add that the 
arrangement of the endogenous plant-axis is such that there can 
be no bark in the pharmacognostic sense of the Avord in mono- 
cotA r ls. 



be. 



fit 

Fig. 224. 

Let us now examine this diagram of a section of bark. A 
typical bark consists of three layers. The outer layer is epider- 
mis in young branches (a), under which a layer of cork or suber 
(b) soon forms, and in somewhat older barks the epidermis disap- 
pears and cork alone remains; this layer is called the "outer bark" 
(exophlceum). Next within this corky layer or outer bark is a 
layer of parenchyma cells (c) formed by the apparent extension, 
broadening and merging into each other of the medullary rays; 
in reality these cells, together with the medullary rays and pith, 
are fundamental tissue. This layer extends from the cork in- 



286 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ward to an imaginary line drawn to connect the outer points of 
the bast portions of all the fibro-vascular bundles in the trans- 
verse section, and this parenchyma constitutes the "middle 
bark" (mesophloeum). The third layer (d) consists of the phloem- 
portions or bast-portions of the fibro-vascular bundles (ph) and 
the intermediate medullary rays (m) from the imaginary line just 
described inward to the cambium layer; it is called the "inner 
bark" (endophloeum or liber) and consists of alternating wedges 
of bast and parenchyma, the wedges of bast having their base or 
broader ends inward and the points outwards, and the fundamental 
parenchyma wedges vice versa. The bast consists of bast-paren- 
chyma (bp), which differs in the shape and size of its cells from the 
fundamental parenchyma, and bast-cells (be); it also contains 
sieve-ducts, which, however, are of little or no practical im- 
portance to the pharmacognosist. The arrangement of the bast- 
parenchyma, bast-cells and medullary rays or fundamental tis- 




Fig. 225. 

sue and their relations to each other give the peculiar appear- 
ances to the transverse sections of barks by which we group 
them. 

The outer surfaces of barks offer several points of interest 
which may be of diagnostic value. Formerly much attention was 
given to the study of the parasitic cryptogams, lichens and 
mosses, which grow on the surfaces of trees, and which were sup- 
posed to be characteristic features of certain barks. At the 
present time we give but little heed to these forms of vegetation, 
although some of them are peculiar in shape and possibly of some 
diagnostic value; the accompanying illustration (Fig. 225) shows 
a lichen, the "graphis elegans," so-called from its resemblance 
to (Chinese) writing, which occurs on Saigon cinnamon; the lit- 
tle black spots on the white corky layer of Cascarilla are also 
crypto gamic plants. While it is possible that a closer study of 
this subject, not only in connection with barks, but also with 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 287 

other plant-parts, might furnish some data of value for the iden- 
tification of powdered drugs, yet the former plan to use these 
lower plant-forms to identify whole barks is about as if someone 
would suggest that because the thumb-marks of no two persons 
agree in shape, therefore the lines and figures of the thumb might 
be used in recognizing our friends. A finger-mark in blood on 
the wall of a room in which a murder was committed might lead 
to the conviction of a murderer, but we recognize our friends by 
face and features other than thumb-marks; so we use other 
coarser and equally characteristic features to identify drugs, 
rather than by a study of the cryptogamic parasites. The mere 
presence or absence of such growths may, however, sometimes 
be useful in distinguishing between the barks of stems (with 
cryptogams) and the barks of roots (without cryptogams) of the 
same plant. 

Cork proper consists of true cork-cells (suber) which may be 
from a few to a few hundred or thousand cells in thickness. 
These cells are practically impervious to water and serve to pre- 
vent evaporation of moisture from the stem while en route from 
the roots to the leaves. As the stem grows in thickness this corky 
layer becomes fissured in a manner which enables the woodman 
to recognize the varieties of trees in the forests or fields by their 
barks, and often enables pharmacognosists to recognize barks by 
these same characteristics. In some barks this corky layer 
cracks off after a while, but a thin protecting layer remains, from 
which thicker layers are soon reproduced; meanwhile the middle 
bark forms new cells to adapt the bark to the growing circum- 
ference of the plant, so that while the bark grows in all direc- 
tions it yet retains the structure of a typical bark with the three 
layers, the outer, middle and inner barks. 

In other plants, however, the bark continues to grow only or 
mainly at the cambium zone and in this case, as the circumfer- 
ence enlarges and fissures form, these extend into the middle 
bark or even into the inner bark, until large pieces of bark 
finally fall off. This would leave the stem in a denuded condi- 
tion, somewhat like an open ulcer on an animal surface, if na- 
ture had not provided a plan to prevent this. A layer, or layers, 
of secondary cork (rhytidoma) dips down from the surface of the 
bark through the middle and later on through the inner bark 



288 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



and emerges again at some little distance; such secondary cork 
layers are shown in this section of cornus florida bark (Fig. 226). 
When formed, nourishment or sap is cut off from the tissues out- 
side, and the latter are sphacelated or necrosed, i. e., cut off from 
the living tree, much like a sphacelus in a spontaneous amputa- 
tion or slough in an animal, or in the same manner as deciduous 
leaves are shed in fall. As far as external appearances go, these 
masses of fissured and necrosed bark tissue resemble the fis- 
sured masses of true cork previously described, and both forma- 
tions are called "Borke" by German botanists; no better term 
having been suggested it has also been adopted by English 
writers and the term is frequently met with; but care should be 
taken that no confusion be permitted by the similarity of the 
English terms "bork" and "bark." 

The "bork" of plants sometimes peels off in sheets or leaves 




Fig. 226. 



when it is called "liber," from a Latin word for book. Liber 
is seen in the grape-vine, for example. "Liber" usually means 
inner bark. 

The falling off of the bork frequently leaves peculiar mark- 
ings or depressions, the latter sometimes decidedly conchoidal 
in shape, or the bork itself may appear in nodules or warts, or 
it may peel off in more or less extended patches or flakes, any 
of which conditions may serve as aids for recognition of the 
identity of the several barks. 

In distinguishing between the barks of stems and roots we 
may also be aided by peculiar markings, traces of former leaf- 
scars or more rarely by the presence of buds on stem barks. 

The middle bark consists mainly of soft- walled parenchyma 



Handbook of pharmacognosy 



289 



cells, which appear tangentially stretched in a transverse sec- 
tion. When cells which are not prosenchymatous in shape, that 
is, which are not long or fusiform but of nearly equal di- 
ameters in all directions, become thickened by sclerogen layers, 
whether aggregated in large numbers as in the stones of fruits 
or scattered among surrounding parenchyma, these sclerenchy- 
matous cells are called ' ' stone-cells ; " a few such cells from a 
gritty particle in the flesh of the pear are shown in Fig. 227, 
and the typical appearance of sclerenchymatous cells will be 
readily recognized. Stone-cells of similar character are found 
in the middle bark of various plants, either singly, scattered as 





Fig. 227. 



Fig. 228. 



in the Cinchonas or in large clusters or even in almost solid 
layers, as in the stone-cells (so-called "star-cells") from Ceylon 
cinnamon, shown in Fig. 228. 

When present such stone-cells afford means for identifying 
the drug both in its whole and in its powdered condition, and of 
course in differentiating between different barks the absence of 
stone-cells in the middle bark may be just as good a characteristic 
in some cases as the presence of them is in other cases. 

Another feature of the middle bark consists in the presence 
(or absence, as the case may be) of larger ducts, cells or spaces, 
latex-ducts, resin or oil cells or ducts, or air-spaces, tracheids, 
etc. In fact cinchonas may be grouped on structural grounds 



290 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

into divisions based upon the presence or absence of both stone- 
cells and latex-ducts or air-spaces. 

The inner bark consists of alternate wedges of medullary rays 
which are narrow at the cambium zone and gradually widen and 
merge with the middle bark and of bast portions of fibro-vascular 
bundles which are widest at the cambium zone and gradually 
grow smaller and cease at the margin of the middle bark; in 
fact the demarcation between middle and inner bark is an im- 
aginary line uniting the outer points of the bast bundles, as seen 
in a transverse section of bark. 

The medullary rays consist of cells similar to or identical 
with those of the middle bark (both being fundamental tissue), 
but they are frequently elongated in a radial direction near the 
cambium zone, gradually becoming shorter in the radial direc- 
tion until at or near the confluence with the middle bark the 
radial diameter is less than the tangential diameter and the cells 
are tangentially stretched as in the middle bark itself. 

The most characteristic features of the inner bark are found 
in the bast or phloem portions. In the living plant this part is 
actively concerned in the circulation of the fluids and special 
ducts, the so-called sieve-ducts, are here found. These ducts are 
formed of elongated cells which are separated by partitions of 
thickened material deposited in a sieve-like manner, the thinner 
parts, or meshes, consisting of soft cell-wall through which os- 
mosis can take place readily. To the pharmacognosist these 
ducts are of little or no importance, except that in the examina- 
tion of powdered barks the appearance of fragments of the sieve- 
like plates might possibly be characteristic in some few instances. 

Most of the bast consists of parenchymatous cells which 
are usually much smaller in diameter on transverse section, but 
elongated in the direction of the plant axis, therefore in a longi- 
tudinal direction. Some barks, hoAvever, contain also a large 
proportion of prosenchymatous cells or strings of cells in the 
bast which render the bark very tough, as in simaruba or meze- 
reon. In still other cases the phloem may be more or less ligni- 
fied, in which case the appearance of the anastomosing bast 
bundles, as seen on the inner surface of the bark of wild cherry 
(Pig. 229), for example, may closely resemble the outer appear- 
ance of the wood-cylinder as figured under woods; in fact the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



291 




Fig. 229. 

structures of phloem and xylem correspond and fit each other ac- 
curately in the growing plant. In such cases the parenchyma of 
the medullary rays often shrinks and forms fissures or depres- 
sions on the inner surface of the bark, especially if the bark is 




Fig. 230. 



292 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



too rigid to curl or quill inwards. (Fig. 229, enlarged 4 di- 
ameters.) 

Still other and perhaps the most characteristic structures when 
present are the bast-cells, which are found in the phloem or bast. 
On transverse section these appear to be similar to the stone- 
cells of the middle bark, as seen in Fig. 230, of bast-cells from 
calisaya bark, but on making a longitudinal section of the bark 
these bast-cells are seen to be prosenchymatous in form, and 
they belong to the mechanical tissue-system, giving strength and 
support. This is shown in the longitudinal section from calisaya 
bark, shown in Fig. 231. 




Fig. 231. 

The form, as well as the arrangement of the bast-cells, singly, 
in clusters, etc., may give peculiar appearance to the section of a 
bark; in the transverse section of calisaya bark just shown, we 
see the bast-cells irregularly scattered, either singly or in quite 
small clusters ; while in the section of cotton-root bark the bast- 
cells and bast-parenchyma are arranged in alternating layers, as 
shown in Fig. 232. Bast-cells, therefore, are important diag- 
nostic features in the determination of the identity of barks. 

Most of the parenchyma cells of the middle and inner bark 
contain starch, as well as the various medicinally valuable ingre- 
dients like alkaloids, etc. Some barks contain special mucilage 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 293 

cells, which are usually larger than the other parenchymatous 
cells, or special oil cells which are sometimes smaller than the 
other parenchymatous cells. Alkaloids are contained in all the 
various cells, but probably mostly in the parenchyma of the in- 
ner bark. The outer bark, even when formed of necrosed tissues 
of inner bark, contains comparatively little of medicinal value 
and is therefore generally to be rejected if present in the form of 
"bork;" but if not present as bork, it constitutes part of the 
drug and the whole bark is to be used. 

We are now prepared to study some facts in regard to the 




Fig. 232. 

coarse appearances of bark, after which the principles of classi- 
fying them will be considered. 

It is of course well known that soft tissues of fruits, etc., be- 
come darkened when exposed to the oxidizing influence of air; 
a piece of peeled apple becomes yellowish and eventually brown- 
ish in a very short time after the protecting epidermis has been 
removed and dried fruits of almost all kinds are darker colored 
than the fresh pulp or flesh of the corresponding fruits. So 
also the cambium tissue, which is made up of very delicate cells 
and which is usually white or colorless, is readily oxidized and 
becomes darkened by exposure to air. Nearly all barks, when 



294 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

first removed from the stems, branches or roots, are white on 
their interior surfaces, but the oxidation after removal changes 
their colors to those which are characteristic of the commercial 
barks; thus, canella alba remains nearly white, slippery elm be- 
comes pale brownish-white, sassafras changes to reddish or 
bright rust-brown, cinnamon brownish and old buckthorn bark 
almost blackish or purplish-brown, so that the tints or colors of 
the interior surfaces of barks become of diagnostic value. 

The appearance of the outer surfaces is not greatly altered 
except when the natural outer portions of cork and bark are 
removed and only the inner bark is sent into trade, when the 
outer surface differs from the fresh appearance in the ungath- 
ered bark, practically in the same manner as the changes in ap- 
pearance of the inner surfaces occur. This is the case, for in- 
stance, in Cassia and Ceylon cinnamons, in slippery elm, etc., 
which are described as " inner barks." 

As soon as a bark is separated from the stem or root it com- 
mences to lose moisture, and in drying out it naturally shrinks. 
The shrinkage will be greatest in that part of the bark which 
contains the softest cells, therefore, more in the inner than in 
the outer portions. If the outer portion or bark has been re- 
moved, the shrinkage will be even or nearly even from both 
surfaces and the pieces of bark will remain more or less flat, as 
in slippery elm, but in some barks the flat pieces are so in conse- 
quence of pressure applied, as in the larger pieces of yellow or 
red cinchona, especially as formerly brought from South 
America. 

As the softer and more succulent inner parts of barks lose 
their moisture, this generally causes the bark to curl inward 
and according to the degree of curvature different descriptive 
names are given to the barks. When the curvature is slight, as 
in Fig. 233, the pieces are called "troughs" or "curved pieces;" 
if the bark is rolled from one side into a tube or cylinder, as in 
Fig. 234, this is called a "quill" or "simple quill," while if it is 
rolled inward from both sides as in Fig. 235, it is called a "double 
quill." 

If while drying, the bark does not readily yield to quilling, 
it may peel off, leaving peculiar depressions on the outer surface 
of the bark, as shown in Fig. 236, and as may be seen in Pome- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



295 



granate bark (Fig. 348). But an unequal shrinking of bast and 
medullary rays may cause longitudinal grooves or wrinkles on 
the inner surface, or even fissures, as in Fig. 237, also shown in 




Fig. 233. 



Fig. 234. 



Fig. 235. 





Fig. 236. 



Fig. 237. 




Fig. 238. 

a drawing of the inner surface of wild cherry bark (Fig. 229) ; 
or ridges may be formed, as in alnus rubra, the reason for which 
will be readily understood from an examination of Fig. 238. 
In some cases, as in cascarilla, the bark does not separate 



296 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

readily from the stem and must be chipped or cut from the lat- 
ter; in such cases some pieces may consist only of a portion of 
the thickness of the bark, while other pieces may consist of 
more than the bark, having splinters of wood adherent on the 
inner surface, while yet other pieces may have both conditions 
present in different parts. In some other kinds of barks the 
suber or epidermis may be very thin or even soft, while the bast 
is rigid, or as just explained, bits of wood may adhere; the 
shrinkage under all these conditions will take place probably 
most in the middle bark and irregular torsion will be exerted on 
both inner and outer surface tissues, the result being pieces of 
bark which are irregularly bent and twisted, and it is to this kind 
of pieces that we should restrict the term " curved pieces" or 
"irregularly curved pieces." 

It will readily be understood that the main characteristics of 
structure which determine color or shape of the pieces of com- 
mercial barks are inherent attributes of the plant from which 
the bark is obtained, and that while the size of the stem or 
branch or root from which the bark is obtained must, in a limited 
way, have influence on the shape (owing to more or less heavy 
layers of outer bark mainly) or the rapidity of drying may to 
some extent modify the tint of the color, or the season of the year 
at which the bark is gathered may influence the bark in various 
ways and especially as regards its constituents, yet the essential 
characteristics, such as histological structure, which are of phar- 
macognostic diagnostic value will necessarily be present in each 
bark, no matter when or how gathered. 

Various methods of classification or grouping have been used, 
of which those based on structural features are, of course, most 
exact and desirable ; but other classifications have also been 
used and it is well to use them all in combination, as the barks 
present many difficulties in this regard. 

Schleiden, one of the founders of the modern study of phar- 
macognosy, in his work published in 1857, classified barks as 
follows: 

Ord. I. Aromatic Barks 

Cinnamon, canella, etc. 

Ord. II. Bitter and Astringent Barks 

A. Thin barks. — Willow, oak, horse chestnut, buckthorn, etc. 

B. Thick barks. — Simaruba, angostura, quassia, pomegranate, etc. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 297 

Ord. III. Acrid Barks 
Mezereon. 

Ord. IV. Cinchona Barks 

(Recognizable by the peculiar bast-cells; this group was, therefore, based 
on structural characteristics.) 

Prof. Maisch, in his valuable work on "Organic Materia 
Medica," classifies barks thus: 

Sect. I. Taste Bitter and Astringent 

Cinchonas, dogwood, magnolia, black alder, wild cherry, barberry, willow, 
witchhazel, cramp bark, black haw, etc. 

Sect. II. Taste Astringent 
White oak, black oak, blackberry, and pomegranate. 

Sect. III. Taste Bitter, Not Aromatic 

White ash, simaruba, quassia, condurango, buckthorn, cascara, Jamaica dog- 
wood, butternut, quebracho, etc. 

Sect. IV. Taste Acrid and Pungent 
Prickly ash, mezereon, cotton-root, coto, wahoo, quillaja, etc. 

Sect. V. Mucilaginous 
Slippery elm. 

Sect. VI. Aromatic (Some also Bitter) With Resin-Cells 
Cinnamon, sassafras, canella, angostura, cascarilla, etc. (This is the onlv 
group of barks in Maisch 's system which is based, in parts at least, on struc- 
tural characteristics.) 

Prof. Culbreth, in his work on "Materia Medica," adopts Prof. 
Maisch 's system, but does not apply the system in the book 
itself. 

A. Bitter and Astringent. 

B. Astringent. 

C. Bitter, Not Aromatic. 

D. Acrid and Pungent. 

E. Mucilaginous. 

F. Aromatic, With Oil or Resin-cells. 

Prof. Sayre proposed the following system, but did not apply 
it in his work on ' ' Materia Medica. ' ' 



298 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Class I. Aromatic. 

A. Deprived of Corky Layer. 

B. With Periderm. 
Class II. Acrid. 

Class III. Bitter. 
Class IV. Bitter and Astringent. 
Class V. Astringent. 
Class VI. Mucilaginous. 
Unclassified. 

Prof. Kraemer uses the following system: 

{A. Yellowish to dark brown. 
B. Grayish to grayish black. 
C. Greenish in color. 

Aromatic odor and taste. 
Without aromatic properties 



Without Periderm 



Ib: 



Prof. Berg (1857) furnished the first system of classifying 
barks strictly according to anatomical or structural characteris- 
tics. To examine the barks according, to his method, transverse 
sections must be made for microscopical examination. 

I. Bast With Scattered or Isolated Bast-Cells, Sometimes in Radial 
Eows, Less Often in Small Groups 

II. Bast Radially Striated 

A. Bast indistinctly striated. 

B. Bast distinctly striated. 

C. Bast regularly wedge-shaped. 

D. Bast with horny bast-fibers. 

III. Bast Quadratically Marked by Parenchymatous and Bast 
Rays Which Cross Each Other 

A. With horny bast-fibers. 

B. Evenly marked without any distinct bast-fibers. 

IV. Bast Tangentially Striate]) 

A. Bast firm and dense, moderately thick. 

B. Bast thin or thick, white, mealy, finely striated. 

C. Bark thin, flexible, reddish-brown. 

V. Bast Nearly Even, Without Distinct Striation 

A. With faint brownish wedges. 

B. Without wedges. 

VI. Bark Rasped, Pale Brown 
VII. Cork ("Bork") Thick, Pale Brown 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 299 

Iii this system some of the subdivisions were made to accom- 
modate the placing of single barks, as for instance the last group 
or class (VII) which was thus created for only one article, cork, 
which, however, is not a drug in the proper sense of the word. 

The system of grouping barks used in this book was intro- 
duced by the author in his " Notes on Pharmacognosy" published 
serially in a journal about twenty-five years ago, and in book- 
form some years later. The system is based on the work of Berg, 
but it is simplified in such a manner that it does not require 
microscopical preparations. 

To apply the system here used it is only necessary to cut a 
bark to be examined, so as to make a smooth transverse section, 
which is to be examined by reflected light with a low power lens 
magnifying from 5 to 10 diameters. If the end of a piece of dry 
bark cannot be cut smooth enough, it may be necessary to soak 
it in water first. 

No cleared or finished microscopical section need be made; in 
fact, such sections are misleading since cleared sections are all 
" radially striate;" reflected light from the opaque end is neces- 
sary for a satisfactory examination, which therefore can be 
made in most instances in a very few minutes. 

Method of Grouping Barks 

Bast with isolated bast-cells XL 

Bast radially striated XLI 

Whole \ Bast tangentially striated XLII 

Bast quadratically striated XLIII 

Bast without striation XLXV 

Rasped XLV 

The characteristics of these groups will be described under the 
separate groups. 

GROUP XL 

Cinchona Barks 

This group consists of the dried barks of Cinchona Ledgeriana, 
Cinchona Calisaya, Cinchona officinalis, and of hybrids of these 
with other species of Cinchona; Bubiacece. A bark of this group 
may be known by placing about 0.1 or 0.2 gram of any cinchona 



Barks ■ 



300 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



bark in a test-tube and then heating in the flame of a bunsen 
burner; the products of the destructive distillation condense on 
the sides of the glass in the upper part of the test-tube as drops 
of a red liquid, which is characteristic of the cinchona barks. 

A very thin sliver may then be cut with a sharp knife or razor 
from the end of one of the pieces, as nearly as possible in a trans- 
verse direction; place this thin fragment on a microscope slide, 
drop on it a little solution of potassium hydroxide and cover 
with a cover glass ; when it clears it will be easy to recognize the 




Fig. 239. 

peculiar bast-cells and their more or less scattered or isolated dis- 
tribution in cinchona barks. 

Only young barks have all three layers, while the older barks 
usually consist altogether of bast, or bast and bork. 

When all three layers are present the outer layer consists of 
cork. The middle bark consists of parenchyma cells, which are 
stretched tangentially and which contain starch and brownish- 
red coloring matter; in this layer there are occasionally found 
isolated stone-cells formed by the thickening of the cell-walls 
of some of the parenchyma cells, and also sometimes intercel- 
lular spaces or ducts which contain sap in younger barks, or air 
in older barks. The inner bark, which is continuously formed 
from the cambium, consists of bast rays separated by medullary 
rays; the bast portions contain peculiar cells, bast-cells, which 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



301 



have so characteristic forms that they are ready means for recog- 
nizing cinchona barks. The appearance of these cells in Cali- 
saya bark is shown in transverse section in Fig. 239 and in longi- 
tudinal section in Fig. 240 ; under the polariscope a polarization 
cross is seen in a transverse section of such a cell, as shown in 
Fig. 19 on page 84. 

The cinchona barks may be grouped according to whether or 
not they contain stone-cells in the middle bark, and each of these 
groups may be divided again according to whether or not they 




Fig. 240. 

contain sap or air spaces in the middle bark. It is beyond the 
scope of these notes, however, to go into details in this regard 
further than giving a few examples: 







C. 


amygdalifolia 




With sap- spaces 


C. 


ovata. 


With stone- 




C. 


umbellata. 


cells 




c. 


lancifolia. 




Without sap-spaces. 


c. 


macrocalyx. 






c. 


microphylla. 






[ c - 


Calisaya. 




With sap-spaces 


^ , - 


lutea. 


Without stone- 




l c - 


Uritusinga. 


cells 




[°- 


lanceolata. 




Without sap-spaces 


c - 


micrantha. 






lc 


succirubra. 



302 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

The cinchona barks have also been grouped as " Yellow Cin- 
chona," "Red Cinchona" and "Pale Cinchona," of which the 
first two groups were official in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia of 1880 
under the titles of "Cinchona Flava" and "Cinchona Rubra;" 
only C. Calisaya was recognized as yellow cinchona and C. suc- 
cirubra as red cinchona, pale cinchona not being official. In the 
U. S. P. of 1870, however, pale cinchona, or "Cinchona Pallida" 
was also officially recognized, C. officinalis and C. micrantha being 
recognized as the sources. 

According to the U. S. P. of 1890, "Cinchona" (Var.:Ledge- 
riana, C. Calisaya and hybrids) should contain not less than 5 per 
cent of total alkaloids of which at least 2.5 per cent should be 
quinine. This was changed in the U. S. P. VIII, to the require- 
ment that it should not contain less than 5 per cent total anhydrous 
alkaloids, and at least 4 per cent of anhydrous ether-soluble alka- 
loids. This is retained in the U. S. P. IX. 

"Cinchona Rubra" (C. succinibra) should contain 5 per cent 
of total alkaloids, but no special requirement of the quinine strength 
was made in the U. S. P. 1890 ; this was changed to "not less than 
5 per cent of anhydrous alkaloids" in the U. S. P. VIII, which is 
also the requirement of the U. S. P. IX. 

The following list states the origins of the different kinds of 
Cinchonas : 

Pale Cinchonas : C. officinalis, C. micrantha, C. subcordata, C. 
umbellulifera, C. purpurea, C. Vritusinga, C. Condaminea (Loxa), 
C. macrocalyx, C. glandulifera, C. microphylla, C. scrobiculata 
(young bark), C. nitida, C. ovata, etc. 

Red Cinchonas : C. succirubra, C. coccinea, etc. 

Yellow Cinchonas: C. Calisaya (and hybrids with C. Ledge- 
riana), C. Boliviana, C. scrobiculata, C. pubescens, C. lancifolia, 
C. cordifolia, C. lutea, C. pitayensis, etc. The bark of C. Calisaya 
was considered best, and was therefore called Cinchona regia or 
China Regia, ' ' Royal Cinchona. ' ' 

The Cinchona barks contain several alkaloids, of which quinine 
is the most important ; in addition to quinine there are quinidme, 
cinchonine, cinchonidine, quinamine, conquinamine, etc. These 
alkaloids occur in the drug in combination with cincho-tannic and 
quinovic acids, of which the first-named is astringent. Then there 
are amorphous substances, quinovin and cinchona red, the first 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 303 

being a bitter principle, while the latter is a product of cincho- 
tannic acid and is especially abundant in the red barks. 

The Cinchonas are natives of South America, but are now 
very successfully cultivated in Java, India, and Ceylon, and the 
cheapness of Cinchona barks and of alkaloids of Cinchona is due 
to the success achieved in these Asiatic plantations. By cultiva- 
tion the barks are not only more beautiful, but also of a higher 
grade; the U. S. P. 1880 requirement of "at least 3 per cent of 
alkaloids" is now too low for pharmaceutical barks, 5 per cent 
being the minimum now, but for manufacturing purposes barks 
are utilized that are often quite low in alkaloidal contents. The 
price of cinchona barks is determined now by the results of an 
assay. 

In the U. S. P. 1870 three Cinchona barks were recognized: 
Yellow Cinchona, Red Cinchona, and Pale Cinchona. While 
these names are no longer the official titles, they are still trade 
varieties of the barks used by pharmacists and we shall now 
consider them. 

Quills or troughs with brownish-gray cork; brownish-yel- 
low internally Cinchona. 

Thick, flat pieces, usually without cork, splintery, fibrous, 

orange-yellow Yellow Cinchona. 

Two kinds, flat and quilled. Similar to above kinds, except 

that the color is deep reddish-brown Red Cinchona. 

Quills, smaller than the other varieties, grayish-brown ex- 
ternally and internally Pale Cinchona. 

Cinchona 

N. Cinchona, Yellow Cinchona, Yellow Peruvian Bark, Cali- 
saya Bark. — 0. The bark of Cinchona Ledgeriana, C. Calisaya, C. 
officinalis, and of hybrids of these with other species of Cinchona; 
Rubiacece. Formerly only C. Calisaya was recognized as the 
source of true yellow cinchona. — H. South America, East India, 
Ceylon and Java; mainly, however, from Java. — D. The Java- 
nese drug, which is the one most commonly used now, comes in 
quills, double quills, or troughs of various lengths, often up to 
30 or 40 cm. or more ; the bark itself from 2 to 3 up to 5 mm. 
thick ; outer surface covered with grayish or brownish gray 
cork, generally fissured both longitudinally and transversely, 



304 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



sometimes wrinkled or marked with warts on longitudinal 
ridges; inner surface brownish-yellow or pale cinnamon-brown 
and finely striate ; fracture abrupt in the outer layers and finely 
fibrous in the inner layers; odor slight and taste bitter and as- 
tringent. (Fig. 241.) 

The South American drug, when obtained from the smaller 




Fig. 241. 



branches of the trees, resembles the drug just described; but 
when obtained from the trunks and larger branches of the trees, 
as is usually the case, it is called "flat cinchona" and differs in 
appearance. Flat yellow cinchona is in pieces of various sizes, 
up to 3 cm. or more thick, consisting mainly of bast, with cork 




Cinchona Calisaya. 

Fig. 242. 



(or rather "bork") occasionally present, but usually without 
cork ; usually the cork is roughly removed with instruments and 
then both outer and inner surfaces appear alike, orange-yellow, 
splintery and fibrous ; a large proportion of the drug usually con- 
sists of small splinters and fragments in which inner and outer 
surfaces cannot be distinguished; the cork ("bork") when 
present, is composed mainly of brown parenchyma or bast, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



305 



with darker or almost black secondary cork lines; the bast- 
cells are arranged in radial lines singly or in small groups of 
two or three, short, thick and yellow. — C. Cinchona alkaloids, 
quinine quinidine, cinchonin, cinchonidine and quinamine, of 
which quinine is the most important and should constitute at 
least one-half of the total alkaloids, of which the bark should 
contain at least 5 per cent; the other constituents are of no im- 
portance: — U. Bitter tonic, anti-periodic, febrifuge. Dose: 1 
to 5 grams, best in fluid extract or in the form of alkaloids and 
their salts. 

Fig. 242 shows a transverse section of a piece of young Cali- 
saya bark. 

Cinchona Rubra 

N. Red Cinchona. — 0. The bark of Cinchona succirubra, or of 
its hybrids; Rubiacecr. — H. Native in South America; cultivated 
in East India, Ceylon and Java. — D. In quills, double quills, or 
troughs, varying in length, from 2 to 5 mm. thick, covered on 
the outer surface with grayish-brown, rough, warty and wrinkled 
cork, which is sometimes slightly fissured transversely ; fracture 




7?? ch on a succirubra. 

Fig. 243. 



fibrous in the inner layers and the inner surface distinctly 
striate, deep reddish-brown ; taste bitter and odor very slight. 

The South American flat red bark, now rarely met with in re- 
tail pharmacies, resembles the flat yellow bark, except in color, 
which is deep reddish-brown. — C. and U. Like those of yellow 
cinchona ; this bark should not yield less than 5 per cent anhydrous 
cinchona alkaloids. 



306 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Cinchona Pallida 

N. Pale Cinchona, Loxa Bark, Crown Bark. — 0. The bark of 
Cinchona officinalis and other varieties of Cinchona; Rubiacece. — 
H. South America ; the varieties furnishing the gray or pale bark 
are of inferior value and are not now cultivated in Asiatic coun- 
tries, with the exception of C. officinalis, which seems to have ma- 
terially improved under cultivation. — D. Generally in quills from 
the thickness of a goose quill to that of a finger, rarely larger; 
epidermis or cork grayish-brown, sometimes wrinkled, or with 
small or shallow fissures, the inner surface brown or grayish- 
brown; fracture fibrous; taste bitter and odor faint, but pecu- 
liar. — C. This bark averages low in its alkaloidal contents, and is 
especially poor in quinine; it is therefore seldom used except for 
the manufacture of alkaloids. — U. Used as an antiseptic as- 
tringent. It contains more cincho-tannic acid than the other 




Cinchona ovata. 

Fig. 244. 

varieties of cinchona and has been used as an ingredient of anti- 
septic poultices; also internally as a bitter tonic. Dose: 2 to 5 
grams, best in the form of fluid extract. Fig. 244 shows a trans- 
verse section of C. ovata, one of the varieties of pale cinchona. 



Cuprea Bark 

In the same forests in which the cinchona trees are found in 
South America, there are also found allied trees (Remijia pedun- 
culata; Rubiacece) which yield cinchona alkaloids, and which are 
sometimes even quite rich in quinine. The barks of these trees 
are brought into the trade as ' ' Cuprea Bark, ' ' but are not used for 
pharmaceutical purposes, but only for the manufacture of the alka- 
loids. They are, therefore, of little or no importance to the phar- 
macist and need not be described. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 307 

GROUP XLI 

In barks of this group the bast wedges and medullary rays 
alternate more or less regularly, as shown in the accompanying 
diagrammatic illustration. As the cells of the medullary rays 
(fundamental tissue) usually contain starch, they are, therefore, 
lighter colored than the bast portions, so that this radial striation 




Fig. 245. 

can readily be seen with a low magnifying power, or even with 
the unaided eye. A transverse section should be made and ex- 
amined with a higher power, so that the cellular elements of the 
bark can be studied, some of which may be characteristic and 
diagnostic. But for simply identifying the barks a clean smooth 
transverse cut is sufficient. 

Thin, papery, compound quills, without cork, externally 
and internally pale cinnamon-colored; pungently 
aromatic Cinnamom. Zeyl. 

Troughs or simple quills, without cork, both surfaces cin- 
namon-brown; pungently aromatic Cinnamom. Cassia. 

Large troughs or quills, externally grayish-brown cork, in- 
ternally cinnamon-brown; pungently aromatic Cinnamom. Saig. 

Quills or irregular pieces, dull brownish, with peculiar 
transverse cracks and with white lichens with black 
spots on outer surface; taste bitter aromatic Cascarilla. 

Irregularly curved pieces of various sizes, cork removed, 
both surfaces reddish-brown with a shade of carmine; 
longitudinally striate, fracture short and pale pink 
or whitish; bitter astringent Comus Florida. 

Quills or broken pieces, externally whitish or pale reddish 
with white scars, internally whitish; odor cinnamon- 
like and taste pungently bitterish CaneHa. 

Irregular pieces, outer surfaces often marbled, fragile, 

soft rust-brown, with characteristic taste and odor. . .Sassafras. 



308 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Quills or flat pieces, externally purplish-brown showing 
small transverse scars, or rough; internally longitudi- 
nally fissured; developing bitter almond taste on 
chewing Prunus Vifg. 

Long, coarsely fibrous, pale yellowish-brown pieces, often 

partially broken and folded upon themselves; bitter. . Simaruba. 

Quills or troughs, externally dark brownish-gray with 
corky warts, internally orange-brown with narrow 
short longitudinal ridges; bitter astringent Alnus Rubra. 

Shallow troughs and irregular fragments, cork removed, 
toughly fibrous internally; both surfaces yellowish- 
brown Magnolia. 

Troughs or quills, purplish-brown externally, internally 
yellowish-white, fibrous in inner layer; bitter as- 
tringent Liriodendron. 

Thin, tough, flexible bands, flatfish or quilled, outer sur- 
face blackish, inner pale brown; mixed with small 
roots Rubus. 

Thin fragments, outer surface brownish, inner surface yel- 
low; bitter, stains saliva yellow Berberis. 

Irregular pieces, outer surface pale yellowish-brown with 
lighter spots, inner surface smooth and brownish- 
yellow; fracture abrupt, almost waxy Ptelea. 

Quills or troughs, brownish-gray with whitish patches, 
marked with minute black dots and small spines; 
striation rather obscure Xanthoxylum, N. 

Cinnamomum 

There are three varieties of cinnamon in common use and as 
they differ materially in appearance, all three will be separately 
described. 

N. Cinnamomum Cassia, Cassia Cinnamon or Cassia, Chinese 




Fig. 246. 



Cinnamon. — 0. The bark of the shoots of one or more undeter- 
mined species of Cinnamomum; Lauracece. — H. This variety is a 
native of China. — D. In single and simple quills of various lengths 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



309 



of the size shown in the left-hand figure; the bark is from 1 to 
2 mm. or more in thickness; the corky layer has been removed by 
scraping, leaving the outer surface somewhat rough ; both sur- 
faces are characteristically brown (cinnamon-colored) ; the frac- 
ture is abrupt, nearly smooth and the transverse section shows 
transverse striation distinctly, as well as many stone-cells (the 
so-called "stellate" cells of cinnamon) in the middle bark which 
forms the outer layer of the drug. 

N. Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, Ceylon Cinnamon. — 0. The inner- 
bark from the shoots of pollarded trees; Cinnamomum Zeylani- 
cum; Lauracece. — H. Ceylon. — D. This variety occurs in long 
quills consisting of several pieces rolled together, with ends 




Fig. 




Fig. 248. 



stuck into each other so that the total length is about a meter; 
each compound quill has six or more barks of a thickness not 
much exceeding that of ordinary wrapping paper ; the outer sur- 
face of the bark is marked with wavy lines of bast bundles, and 



310 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



both surfaces are pale-yellowish-brown; both surfaces are smooth 
and the fracture is short and somewhat splintery. 

The coarse appearance of this variety of cinnamon is shown in 
the right-hand figure above, and an enlarged appearance of a 
prepared transverse section is shown here; the outer layer, or 
middle bark of this variety also contains many stone-cells, enough 
in fact, to constitute a continuous layer; the large white cells in 
the bast portion of the bark are mucilage cells, and the small 
darker round cells are bast-cells ; before clearing the section nu- 
merous oil-cells may be seen, but as these do not differ in size or 
otherwise from the ordinary parenchyma cells, they cannot be 
distinguished in a cleared section. 

N. Cinnamomum Saigonicum, Saigon Cinnamon. — 0. The whole 
bark of an undetermined species of Cinnamomum; Lauracece. — 




Fig. 249. 



H. China. — D. In quills of various widely differing sizes, as seen 
in the drawings, which are natural size; the average thickness 
of the quills is about 10 to 15 mm., but sometimes more than 
twice that thickness; the drawings of sections of two pieces of 
bark, also natural size, show the variation in the thickness of the 
individual pieces of bark ; in this variety the cork is present, the 
outer surface being gray or light grayish-brown with whitish 
patches, more or less rough and warty, the inner surface granu- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 311 

lar, slightly striate and dark-brown; the ends of the pieces of 
drug show a shortening of the outer parts due to shrinking in the 
freshly broken pieces ; fracture in the drug is abrupt, showing a 
large number of yellowish-white cell clusters near the outer part, 
just within the cork. 

All the cinnamon barks have a peculiar, very pleasant fragrant 
odor and a sweetish, warm and aromatic taste. Ceylon cinna- 
mon has both a finer and stronger aroma than Cassia cinnamon, 
the latter drug being the least valuable variety of cinnamon. 
Saigon cinnamon, however, has both the strongest and best 
aroma, and is the variety that should be preferred for medicinal 
purposes. — C. Volatile oil, some cinnamic acid, sugar, etc. — U. 
Mainly for culinary purposes. It was formerly supposed to con- 




Fig. 250. 

trol uterine hemorrhages, but as it was always combined with 
other more active remedies, it is doubtful whether it itself had 
any such action. Dose: 1 to 2 grams, or ad libitum. 

Cascarilla 

N. Cascarilla. — 0. The bark of C rot on Eluteria; EuphorbiacecB. — 
H. The Bahamas. — D. The drug consists of quills or troughs, 
from 2.5 to 10 cm. long and about 10 to 15 mm. thick, or broken 
into smaller pieces; the bark itself is about 2 mm. thick; the 
cascarilla imported into the United States consists mainly of 
young bark which has a dull brown color, both on the outer and 
inner surfaces; the outer surface is usually much fissured trans- 
versely and partly or entirely covered with a white lichenous 
growth with black spots; the inner surface is smooth; the frac- 
ture is abrupt, resinous, and shows distinctly the transverse 



312 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

striation of the bast bundles and medullary rays; among the 
parenchyma cells of the bark which contain starch there are 
scattered numerous brown oil or resin-cells ; bast fibers are few ; 
odor is slightly aromatic, but on burning becomes strongly fra- 
grant; the taste is strongly bitter and aromatic. — C. About 1.5 
per cent volatile oil, cascarillin (a bitter neutral principle), and 




Fig. 251. 

about 15 per cent of resin. — U. Stimulant stomachic. Occasionally 
used as an ingredient of incense. It is also often used, either 
alone or in combination with other substances, as a tobacco 
flavor. Dose: About 2 grams. 



i-v 



Cornus 

N. Dogwood Bark. — 0. The inner bark of the root of Cornus 
florida; Cornacece. — H. North America. — D. In irregularly curved 
pieces or troughs from which the coarse gray layer has been re- 
moved; about 2 to 3 mm. thick; both outer and inner surfaces 
striated and reddish or reddish-brown, with often a decided 
tint of rose color or crimson; the fracture, longitudinal and 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



313 



transverse, is abrupt, showing yellowish clusters of stone-cells ; 
a prepared transverse section has numerous radiating lines of 
medullary rays, the clusters of stone-cells being irregularly dis- 
persed in the parenchyma of the phloem, and frequently adher- 
ing portions of "bork" show tangential lines of secondary suber 
or cork; the taste is bitter and astringent, odor none. — C. Cornin 
(or cornic acid), tannin, etc. — U. Astringent bitter tonic; slightly 
febrifuge. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract. 




Fig. 252. 



The barks of Cornus sericea (Swamp Dogwood) and Cornus 
circinata (round-leaved Dogwood) resemble dogwood bark, but 
are thinner and usually quilled ; they are of little importance, as 
they are very seldom used medicinally. 



Canella 

N. Canella. — 0. The bark of the stem of Canella alba; Canel- 
lacece. — H. Bahama Islands and West Indies. — D. Hard, white 
quills, troughs, or irregular fragments, about 2 to 4 mm. thick ; 
the outer surface is freed from the outer bark, and is pale brown- 
ish-red or brownish-yellow, smooth except that it is marked with 
long, white, oval scars ; barks from older branches are rough on 
the outside, but constitute only a small proportion of the drug; 
the inner surface is white, smooth and finely striate; it breaks 
with an even granular white fracture, showing numerous yel- 
lowish resin-cells in the middle bark ; a prepared section shows 
the middle bark to be bounded outwardly by a layer of cubical, 
lemon-yellow stone-cells, with a parenchyma consisting mainly of 
starch-cells with numerous interspersed large, round or oval, 



314 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



yellow resin-cells, while the inner bark is radiately striated with 
medullary rays, and shows bast fibers; the odor is spicy, resem- 
bling cassia (it is called "white cinnamon" in German) and the 
taste is bitter and pungently aromatic. — C. Contains about 1 per 
cent volatile oil and about 20 per cent of acrid aromatic resin. — 




Fig. 253. 



U. Stimulant tonic similar in action to other aromatics: used 



mainly to prevent griping of purgative remedies. 
2.5 grams. 



Dose: 0.5 to 



Sassafras 



N. Sassafras, Sassafras Bark. — 0. The inner bark of the root 
of Sassafras variifolium; Lauracece. — H. North America, espe- 
cially United States. — D. In irregular fragments deprived of the 
corky layer or bork; about 3 mm. thick; the outer surface from 
which the bork has been removed is sometimes quite prettily mar- 
bled or grained in light and dark gray and rust-brown, owing to 
the different colors of the parenchyma and the secondary suber 
of the bork, as shown in a drawing of a piece of the drug; the 
inner surface is smooth and rust-brown; fragile, soft with short 
corky fracture, not fibrous; a transverse section of the soaked 
bark examined by reflected light shows no structure, except 
when the bork is still present, when the outer part of the bark 
is distinctly striated in a tangential direction by the light-colored 
bands of secondary suber, and the drug is apt to be mistaken for 
one belonging to Group 42; in a thin transverse section the ra- 
diating lines of the medullary rays are very distinct, especially 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



315 



if the section is examined while it is immersed in the solution of 
caustic potassa before the color has all been removed, because it 
is discharged first from the medullary rays, which then are light- 
colored among the deep-red parenchyma; the prepared section 
shows many medullary rays and some bands of secondary suber, 
and numerous reddish or yellowish oil-cells and isolated pale 
yellow bast-cells; fragrant, sweetish aromatic. — C. About 3 per 




Fig. 254. 



cent of volatile oil, traces of tannin, etc.— U. Sassafras is popu- 
larly much esteemed as a " blood purifier," or alterative; it is a 
stimulant diaphoretic, especially when administered in the form 
of copious draughts of hot infusion, the hot water no doubt de- 
serving some of the credit for the action. More commonly used 
merely as a flavoring agent. Dose: Usually ad libitum, of the 
tea. 



Primus Virginiana 

0. Wild Cherry, Wild Cherry Bark.— N. The bark of Prunus 
serotina (Prunus Virginiana) ; Rosacece. The drug should be col- 
lected in autumn. — H. North America, especially United States. 
D. The bark of medium-sized branches should be used, that of 
the large stems and roots or of small twigs being inferior. Wild 



316 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Cherry bark occurs in troughs or irregular pieces of various 
sizes, but should be at least 2 mm. thick; if from large stems or 
roots the corky layer is usually removed and the pieces are flat, 
with the outer surface rough, uneven, only obscurely marked 
with the peculiar transverse scars (lenticels), and rust-brown; 
if from medium-sized or small branches the bark is smooth, 
greenish, yellowish or reddish-brown and marked with numer- 
ous elevated, transverse, light-colored, peculiar and character- 
istic scars or warts (lenticels), the thin cork or epidermis show- 





Fig. 255. 



Fig. 256. 



ing a strong tendency to peel off and curl up (see Fig. 256) ; the 
inner surface is pale cinnamon-colored, striated or more fre- 
quently longitudinally fissured, as shown in Fig. 255, showing 
the inner surface enlarged; the other illustration shows the outer 
surface, natural size; the drug has little or no odor when dry, 
but after macerating with water or chewing, it gives a strong bit- 
ter almond odor; the taste is bitter and astringent with the 
aroma of bitter almonds. — C. Two principles resembling the am- 
ygdalin and emulsin of bitter almonds, but not identical with 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 317 

them, which react on each other in the presence of water and 
yield hydrocyanic acid and oil of bitter almonds ; a bitter gluco- 
side, tannin, etc, — U. Bitter stomachic and tonic, with slight 
sedative effect, the latter making it a popular remedy for colds 
and coughs. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best in form of syrup or fluid 
extract. 

Simaruba 

N. Simaruba. — 0. The bark of the roots of Simaruba officinalis 
and S. medicinalis; Simarubacece. — H. South America and "West In- 
dies. — D. Flat pieces, troughs or rarely quills, often up to a meter 
long, folded lengthwise, from 3 to 6 mm. thick ; externally rough, 
wrinkled, with whitish suber, or the latter more generally rubbed 
off, in which case the outer surface is pale fawn-colored, rough 
with coarse stone-cells and tough fibers; inner surface lighter- 




Fig. 257. 
colored and striate or fibrous; bast toughly fibrous, arranged in 
somewhat obliquely radiating lines, separated by rather broad 
medullary rays, as shown in Fig. 257 ; the direction of the obliquity 
may appear to be from left to right, or the reverse, depending on 
which side of the section comes uppermost when mounting the 
specimen; odorless and intensely and persistently bitter. — C. Vol- 
atile oil and resin in very small proportion, a bitter principle 
(probably quassin), etc. — U. A bitter tonic. Often used in diar- 
rhoeas and dysenteries, in which diseases it is often of marked 
value, especially when they are due to an atonic condition of the 
alimentary tract. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. 

Alnus Rubra 

N. Tag Alder. — 0. The bark of Alnus serrulata; Betulacece. — H. 
North America, — D. In quills or troughs, externally dark brown- 
ish-gray, marked by corky warts which tend to run together trans- 



318 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

versely; the inner surface is orange-brown and marked by scat- 
tered, coarse, narrow, short, longitudinal ridges, or striate, as 
shown in the illustration of the inner surface ; the drawings of the 
whole bark are of natural size, that of the section is enlarged 5 



Fig. 258. 

times; odor feeble, taste bitter and astringent. — C. Tannin, etc.; 
no exact analysis has been made. — U. Astringent. Also reputed to 
be alterative and emetic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best given as fluid 
extract. 

Magnolia 

N. Magnolia. — 0. The barks of Magnolia glauca, M. acuminata 
and M. tripetala; Magnoliacece. — H. Southern United States. — D. 
The bark from young branches is in quills or troughs, thin, orange- 
brown and glossy or light gray, with scattered warts or some- 
what fissured; internally pale yellowish- white or pale brownish 
and smooth ; fracture abrupt, slightly fibrous in the inner layers ; 
in bark from older branches or stems, the bork, if present, is 
dark gray and deeply fissured, but as found in the trade the 
outer layer of the bark is generally removed and the drug con- 
sists only of the inner bark, which is often from 5 to 6 mm. thick; 
both inner and outer surfaces are of a pale yellowish-brown 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



319 



color, the outer surface appearing to be somewhat granular, while 
the inner is more fibrous; the illustrations show the transverse 
sections of Magnolia glauca, that of Fig. 259 being the entire 
bark with bork, Fig. 260 the inner bark alone as most generally 
seen in the trade, both showing a smooth cut section examined by 
reflected light with a Coddington lens; the drug has no odor; 
the taste is bitter, astringent and pungent. — C. Tasteless neutral 
principle, tannin, resin, etc.; analysis not complete. Judging by 
the taste, the bark from small twigs is better than that of the 




Fig. 259. 




larger stems, for it is more pungent and bitter. — U. Tonic, febri- 
fuge and diaphoretic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, in decoction or fluid 
extract. 

Liriodendron 

N. Tulip-tree Bark. — 0. The bark of the branches of Lirioden- 
dron tulipifera; Magnoliaceaz. — H. United States. — D. The bark of 
smaller branches comes in thin quills or troughs, the bark being 
about 2 mm. thick; the outer surface is grayish or blackish-brown 
with often a purplish shade, longitudinally wrinkled so that the 
wrinkles sometimes resemble elongated meshes; internally yel- 
lowish-white, smooth, or somewhat fibrous; pieces of bark from 
larger branches are up to 6 mm. thick, with a deeply fissured 
bork of a grayish-broAvn color often with a greenish tint due to 
lichenoid growths; a smooth transverse cut (Fig. 261) shows 
nearly one-half of the thickness of the bark to be corky layer, of 
a light-brown color on section, and the inner part, rather more 



820 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



than half the thickness, to be pale yellowish or white ; the bark 
of older stems or branches is usually deprived of its corky layer 
and is white on both outer and inner surfaces; by aid of a lens 
the inner bark shows fibro-vascular bundles alternating with 
medullary rays so as to give a plainly radially striated appear- 
ance, and the individual bast-bundles appear beaded; this is 
shown in Fig. 261, showing a section of the bark by reflected 





Fig. 261. 



Fig. 262. 



light, enlarged ; Fig. 262 is a section of a bundle, much enlarged, 
showing minute structure to which this beaded appearance is 
due, and a small fragment of one of the bast-bundles is also shown 
in longitudinal section; no odor, taste bitter and slightly astrin- 
gent. — C. Various resins, a glucoside, tannin, etc. — U. Tonic, 
febrifuge and vermifuge; seldom used. Dose: 5 to 10 grams in 
infusion or fluid extract. 

Rubus 

N. Blackberry Root Bark. — 0. The bark of the roots of Rubus 




Fig. 263. 

villosus (blackberry), R. Canadensis (dewberry), and R. trivialis; 
Rosacea?. — H. United States. — D. Thin, tough, flexible bands, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



321 



sometimes flattisli, more often quilled; the outer surface 
blackish or blackish-gray, inner surface pale brown, often with 
strips of white wood adhering; fracture rather tough and 
fibrous, whitish; a large proportion of the drug consists of the 
smaller rootlets entire; a section of the bark shows the bast 
in rather broad, obliquely radiate wedges, some of which are 
made up of the bast of two or more bundles; the drug is odorless, 
with astringent and slightly bitter taste. — C. 10 to 12 per cent 
tannin, the bitter glucoside villosin, etc. — U. Astringent tonic. 
Dose: 5 to 10 grams, best as fluid extract. 

Berberis 

N. Barberry Bark (must not be confounded with the rhizome 
and roots of Berberis Aquifolium, which is also called "Ber- 
beris"). — 0. The bark of Berberis vulgaris; Berberidacece. — H. 
Europe and Asia; naturalized in America. — D. Thin fragments, 




Fig. 264. 




Fig. 265. 

outer surface brown or brownish-gray, inner surface yellow, sep- 
arating in thin shreds or sheets ; a clean-cut section of a soaked 
piece shows an outer dark brown corky layer, a middle bark of 
light yellow color, abruptly marked off from darker yelloAv or 
brownish inner bark, which is plainly radiate with dark brown 



322 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



or almost black bast-bundles, so arranged that two of them often 
join in almost O-shape (see Fig. 265). The drug in bulk has a 
slightly herbaceous odor and a pure, bitter taste, and stains 
the saliva yellow. — C. Alkaloids berberidine and oxyacanthin, 
etc. — U. Bitter tonic and stomachic; in large doses laxative' with 
supposed cholagogue effect. Dose: 2 to 6 or 8 grams. 

Ptelea 

N. Wafer Ash Bark, Shrubby Trefoil Bark, Hop Tree Bark.— 
0. The bark of Ptelea trifoliata; Rutacece. — H. North America. — 
D. In irregular pieces, troughs or quills of various sizes, the bark 
itself up to 4 mm. thick; the outer surface pale yellowish-brown 







Fig. 266. 



Fig. 267. 



with grayish- white markings, with transverse ridges and grooves 
and occasional transversely elliptical patches or depressions, the 
inner surface smooth and brownish-yellow; fracture abrupt, cut- 
ting with a waxy feel ; on smooth cut section the corky layer is 
not well marked, being of same pale yellowish color as the mid- 
dle bark, the inner bark is striated with irregularly radiating 
bast-bundles of a slightly darker color than the parenchyma of 
the middle bark and the medullary rays ; faint, not characteristic 
odor, and a mucilaginous, slightly acrid and bitter taste. — C. No 
analysis. — U. Stomachic tonic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams, best in fluid 
extract. 



Northern Prickly Ash Bark, the bark of Xanthoxylum Ameri- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 323 

canum, shows radiating striation of bast, but as the Southern 
Prickly Ash Bark has no well marked striation, and it is not 
very plain even in the Northern variety, this bark will be more 
fully described under Group XLV. 

GROUP XLII 

The barks of this group show on a smooth-cut transverse sec- 
tion, especially if moistened with diluted liquor potassa, either 
continuous or interrupted rows which are at right angles to the 
medullary rays, or parallel with the corky layer, giving the ap- 
pearance as in the diagrammatic illustration ; the medullary rays 
are not ay ell marked, although traces of them can be seen, and 
in some instances even quite plainly, but when the medullary 
rays make quite distinct radial lines the bark would belong in 




Fig. 268. 

the next group; thus the stem bark of Juglans, which generally 
shows only the tangential lines distinctly, in some pieces shows 
quadratically striated, although the checkered appearance is 
very plain in the root bark. Nearly all barks show their charac- 
teristic markings Avhen a piece is freshly broken across, then cut 
smooth with a sharp knife and examined with a Coddington lens, 
but some barks require soaking before cutting, and sometimes 
even moistening with dilute solution of potassa to increase the 
contrast in color between the medullary and bast rays. It is ad- 
visable, also, to cut as thin a section as possible from the end of 
a piece of bark previously soaked in water or diluted alcohol, 
place this section in a drop of liquor potassa on a slide and cover 
with a cover glass, and examine, while clearing, with a lens of 
rather low power ; the markings often appear plainer while clear- 
ing, than when the section has been completely cleared. Making 
such a slide need not take more than one or two minutes of time. 



324 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Nearly flat massive bark, with thick corky layer 
deeply fissured; gray or grayish-brown on outer 
and yellowish-red on inner surfaces Aspidosperma. 

Thin flexible bands or quilled pieces; brownish on 
outer and whitish on inner surfaces; separable 
into thin layers G-ossypii Radicis Cortex. 

Long, thin flexible bands, rolled into bundles, yel- 
lowish on outer and silky-white on inner sur- 
faces Mezereum. 

Quilled pieces or troughs; ash-gray outer and whit- 
ish or pale tawny inner surfaces Euonymus. 

Flatfish pieces or troughs; ash-gray outer and pale 

brown or whitish inner surfaces Viburnum Opulus. 

Thin quills or troughs, gray- brown outer and pale 

brown and striated inner surfaces Cundurango. 

Coarse quills, troughs or irregular pieces, toughly 
fibrous; outer surface gray or blackish-brown 
with many transverse ridges, inner surface 
smooth or fibrous Piscidia. 

Thick quills or troughs with coarsely fissured gray- 
ish-brown corky layer, or without bork; yel- 
lowish-brown and striated inner surface Alstonia Constricta. 

Small contorted quills or troughs, usually irregularly 
broken; occasionally whole pieces of root; their 
brownish corky layer usually partially detached 
and adherent in shreds Rhois Glabrae Cort. 

Large troughs or flat pieces, smooth, dark-brown 
and mottled on outer surface; bork generally 
absent Juglans (stem) . 



Aspidosperma 

N. Quebracho, Quebracho-bianco, White Quebracho. — 0. The 
bark of Aspidosperma Quebracho-bianco ; Apocynacece. — H. Bra- 
zil and Argentine Republic. — D. Large pieces slightly curved or 
nearly flat, from 1 to 3 cm. thick, the rough bork and the inner 
bark being of about equal thickness. The corky portion of the 
bark is deeply fissured, both longitudinally and transversely, the 
fissures being quite wide and of grayish color from lichenous 
growths, while the elevated parts of bark are grayish-brown to 
rust-brown. On section the corky layer is yellowish-brown to 
rust-brown, with dark tangential lines of secondary suber and 
rows of whitish clusters of sclerenchyma cells showing that the 
outer layer is bork. The inner bark is fawn-colored and marked 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



325 



with fine longitudinal lines on the inner surface, which is other- 
wise nearly smooth; on section the inner bark shows numerous 
whitish groups of sclerenchyma cells arranged in tangential 
rows. The fracture is fibrous, irregular. No odor and taste in- 
tensely bitter. — C. Six alkaloids, of which aspidospermhie and 




Fig. 269. 




Fig. 270. 



quebrachine are the most important.— U. Used to relieve dysp- 
nea, from whatever cause it may arise. Tonic and antispas- 
modic in asthma. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. Fig. 269 shows the whole 
bark. 

False Quebracho.— The bark shown in Fig. 270 is sometimes 



326 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

found in trade as a substitute for true quebracho. It is Que- 
bracho Colorado, dark quebracho or false quebracho, obtained 
from Loxopterygium Lorentzii; Anacarcliaceae. It is heavy, outer 
surface dark brown and fissured, light brown on inner surface, 
which is marked by a great number of prominent longitudinal 
ridges. It is about 12 mm. thick. The transverse section appears 
tangentially striated from secondary suber and rows of bast- 
cells, and sometimes the light-colored medullary rays are distinct 
enough to give a quadratically checkered appearance. In the 
specimen I have seen, the fissures in the bork contained many 
tangled fibers, probably the rootlets of some climbers. Odorless, 
taste slightly resinous and astringent, not bitter. Valueless. 

Gossypii Radicis Cortex 

N. Cotton Root Bark. — 0. The bark of the root of Gossypium 
herbaceum; Malvaceae. — H. The cotton plant is indigenous to sub- 




Fig. 271. 



tropical Asia and Africa and is cultivated in America. The drug 
is gathered in the United States, south of the Ohio River. — D. 
The drug consists of thin, flexible, flat or quilled bands ; the outer 
surface is brownish-yellow, with slight longitudinal ridges or 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



327 



meshes, sparsely scattered small, round, black dots, or short 
transverse lines, and dull orange-brownish patches where the 
thin outer bark is abraded ; the inner surface is tawny or whitish, 
finely striate and of silky luster ; quite a large proportion of the 
drug consists of the smaller roots entire. The transverse section 
(Fig. 271) shows the bast-fibers in clusters forming tangential 
lines; these bast-fibers are long and tough and the bast can be 
separated into thin shreds or layers; no odor; taste very slightly 
acrid and faintly astringent. — C. Eesin, fixed oil, tannin and a 
deep red coloring matter. — U. Employed as an emmenagogue. 
It acts on the uterus similarly to ergot, and is used in cases of 
suppressed or scanty menstruation. In large doses it may pro- 
duce abortion, and in fact is often administered with the inten- 
tion of bringing about this effect. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best as 
fluid extract. 

Mezereum 

N. Mezereum, Mezereon Bark. — 0. The bark of Daphne Meze- 
reum, D. Gnidium and D. Laureola; Thymelacew. — H. Northern 
Europe and Asia, also Canada and New England. — D. Mezereum 
occurs in long thin bands, very flexible and tough, usually rolled 
into discs or bundles; the outer surface consists of reddish-brown 
cork, which is easily separable in shreds, showing the greenish 




Fig. 272. 



middle bark underneath; the cork is marked with many round or 
slightly transverse scars which are dark-colored, but often 
abraded and then yellowish-brown and lighter-colored than the 
cork; the inner surface of the bark is whitish and silky fibrous; 
on transverse section the cork and thin middle bark usually tear, 
the inner bark or bast separating from them ; in the latter the 
bast-bundles are arranged in somewhat irregular and interrupted 



328 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



tangential lines, as indicated in the illustration ; the bast-cells are 
very long and tough ; the drug has no odor, but a very acrid taste, 
and the powder is an extremely irritating sternutatory. — C. A 
soft, brown, acrid resin, an acrid volatile oil, the glucoside daph- 
nin, etc. — U. Mezereum is esteemed as an alterative stimulant in 
chronic syphilitic, scrofulous, rheumatic and cutaneous affections ; 
generally in combination with sarsaparilla and other so-called 
blood purifiers. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram, best as fluid extract. 

Euonymus 

N. Wahoo. — 0. The bark of the root of Euonymus atropurpu- 
reus; Celastracece. — H. United States. — D. Quills or troughs and ir- 
regular pieces, the "bark itself being about 2 mm. thick ; the outer 
surface is gray, with dark ridges or patches; the inner surface is 




Fig. 273. 



whitish or tawny, and smooth; the fracture is abrupt through the 
outer part of the bark, but the bast is slightly fibrous from silky 
fibers, which are quite delicate and not at all tough; the smooth- 
cut transverse surface is whitish and mottled with brown, with 
tangential brownish lines in the inner bark, as shown in Fig. 273 ; 
the odor is faint, taste sweetish-bitter and acrid. — C. A bitter 
amorphous substance called euonymin, extractive, etc. The 
"euonymin" of trade is merely a powdered extract. — U. Said to 
be tonic, laxative, alterative, diuretic and expectorant. Dose: 
1 to 5 grams. 

A bark occurs in the trade under the name of "Southern Wa- 
hoo," which comes in chips evidently removed from the branches 
by knives, so that it has thin edges; small, thin troughs bent lon- 
gitudinally outwardly, occasionally with bits of wood adhering; 
grayish-brown, lighter-colored on inner surface, wood whitish; 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



329 



corky layer reticulately or longitudinally wrinkled, with occa- 
sional small warts; the transverse smooth-cut section shows nu- 
merous clusters of sclerenchymatous cells arranged in irregu- 
larly tangential rows. This bark may be the bark of Ulmus alata 
(winged elm) which is called "wahoo" in the Southern part of 
the United States, although the statement of the National Dis- 
pensatory that this bark is used to make ropes does not agree 
with the brittle and abrupt fracture of the bark under considera- 
tion. At all events, it is not the "wahoo" of the Pharmacopoeia, 
and should not be used as "wahoo." 

Viburnum Opulus 

N. Cramp Bark. — 0. The bark of Viburnum opulus; Caprifo- 
liacce. — H. Northern temperate zone, in America, Europe and 
Asia. — D. In quills or troughs, 10 to 25 cm. long, the bark itself 




Fig. 274. 



being about 1 to 2 mm. thick ; the outer layer is greenish or 
brownish-gray but peels off easily and shows the reddish-brown 
inner bark underneath; the inner surface is grayish or slightly 
brownish ;' fracture of young bark brittle, of older pieces tough, 
the bast separating into layers; on transverse section (upper 



330 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

drawing of Fig. 274) the bast is seen to be tangentially striated 
with rows of almost rectangular clusters of cells which are dark 
by reflected light, but transparent in thin sections by transmit- 
ted light; the drug is inodorous, with pungent and bitter taste. 
Fig. 274 shows both old and young barks entire, and a smooth- 
cut section by reflected light. — C. A bitter principle, pungent 
resin, etc. — U. Antispasmodic, useful especially in uterine colic, 
cramps in hysterical women, etc. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in infusion 
or in fluid extract. 

Condurango 

N. Condurango. — 0. The bark of Gonolobus Cundurango; Ascle- 
piadacecE. — H. Ecuador and Peru. Said to be often mixed with 
the barks of other varieties of Asclepiadaceag, etc. — D. In quills 
and troughs about 5 to 10 cm. long, the bark itself from 2 to 6 




Fig. 275. 

mm. thick; the outer surface is grayish-brown, with here and 
there remains of silvery gray epidermis, and occasional whitish 
or ash-gray patches of lichens, and with occasional small, black 
lichenous dots; the corky layer with shorter or longer transverse 
ridges or warts, but more commonly longitudinally wrinkled and 
fissured ; the cork chips off in places, showing the tawny middle 
bark underneath; the inner surface' is lighter-colored, tawny or 
yellowish-white, and longitudinally striated with elevated lines, 
and occasionally irregularly dotted with dirty grayish-brown 
spots; the fracture is granular, with a few projecting fibers 
nearer the outer surface; a smooth-cut section, especially of a 
soaked piece, shows as in Fig. 275, the outer part brownish, grad- 
ually shading to grayish-white within, and showing compara- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



331 



tively large and few clusters of stone-cells arranged in more or 
less well-marked tangential rows ; the parenchyma contains 
starch and crystals of oxalate of calcmm. Nearly odorless and 
but faintly bitter. — C. A peculiar glucoside, some tannin, etc. — 
U. When first introduced it was heralded to be a sure cure for 
cancer, but unfortunately it has proved worthless as a remedy 
for this disease. It has probably merely slightly tonic effects and 
is medicinally of very inferior value. Dose: About 2 grams. 

Rhois Glabrae Cortex 

N. Sumach Bark. — 0. The bark of Rhus glabra; Anacardiacece. 
The root bark is preferred. — H. North America. — D. Quills or 





Fig. 276. 



Fig. 277. 



troughs, or irregular somewhat twisted or contorted fragments, 
sometimes enclosing pieces of wood ; the corky layer, which often 
hangs in shreds, is chocolate-brown with scattered reddish-brown 
warts; the middle bark appears yelloAvish-gray wherever the 
corky layer is abraded; the inner surface is smooth and of a light 
cinnamon-brown color; fracture abrupt and grayish-white, the 
smooth-cut section showing by reflected light the structure shown 
in Fig. 277, the corky layer thin, the middle bark rather thick, 
light yellowish-white Avith yellowish-brown spots, and the inner 
bark with distinct tangential alternating brownish and whitish 
lines ; odor none, taste bitter astringent. — C. Tannin, etc.- — U. 
Astringent tonic, useful for both internal and local use. Dose: 
2 to 5 grams. 



332 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Juglans 

N. Butternut Bark. — 0. The bark of Juglans cinerea; Juglan- 
dacece. The inner bark of the root should be preferred, but bark 
of the stem also is found in the trade; usually the two barks are 




Fig. 278. 

sold separately. The bark should be collected in autumn. — H. 
North America. — D. In flat, coarsely fibrous pieces or troughs, up 
to 20 cm. long and from 3 to 5 mm. thick, but occasional pieces 



^,;„v>-,.-.>^ ;•- . = H;^ J , 



mmmm® mmm^ 






Fig. 279. 



with bork may be much thicker ; the drug is usually deprived of 
all bork and is grayish-brown, mottled with darker colored mark- 
ings and lighter colored patches, as shown in Fig. 278 ; the inner 
surface is dark-brown, smooth or striate and fibrous, but the fibers 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



333 



are not tough, so that the fracture is short and cutting with a 
knife shows all parts to be quite soft; a smooth-cut section of a 
thick piece (about 6 mm.) is shown in Fig. 279, with a bit of bork 
(secondary cork and sphacelated inner bark) attached, and the 
balance of thickness is made up of alternate layers of parenchyma 
and rows of bast-cells which form practically continuous lines ; in 
a section of thinner pieces the outer portion is middle bark of a 
light-brown color and the inner bark, somewhat abruptly 
marked off from the middle bark, shows the characteristic tan- 
gential lines ; occasionally in the smooth-cut end it is possible to 
find checkered or quadratically marked parts, but this usually 
requires a finished section, which has been cleared and is exam- 
ined by transmitted light, when it appears almost always check- 
ered, and would be referred to Group XLIII ; odor faint and taste 
slightly acrid and bitter. — C. Nucin (juglandic acid), 14 per cent 
of fixed oil, a little tannin, etc. — U. Laxative and tonic. Dose: 
5 to 10 grams, best in infusion or fluid extract, 

Piscidia 

N. Jamaica Dogwood Bark. — 0. The bark of Piscidia Erythrina; 
Leguminosce. — H. West Indies. — D. In coarse quills or troughs, 
or irregular pieces, about 15 to 20 cm. long, very fibrous and torn, 
the bark itself being from 4 to 6 mm. thick; the outer surface is 
marked with transverse ridges or warts, the edges of which are 




Fig. 280. 



somewhat raised so that they look like oval or elongated grooves 
with elevated margins; the corky layer, when present, is of choco- 
late-brown color with orange-brown spots, but more commonly 
the corky layer is absent; where the corky layer is broken away 



334 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



the surface appears brownish- gray, Avith the wrinkles or warts 
showing distinctly ; the inner surface is of a dirty-gray color, 
longitudinally fissured, smooth or fibrous; the fracture is very 
tough and fibrous, the freshly-broken surfaces appearing yellow- 
ish-white; a smooth-cut transverse section shows the bast-bundles 
in short tangentially elongated clusters, closely packed in such a 
manner as to give a somewhat irregularly serrate demarkation 
between the inner and middle barks; Fig. 280 shows a section 
seen by reflected light, when the middle bark appears yellowish- 
white and the inner bark brownish ; the odor is very faint, some- 
times described as narcotic or opium-like, and the taste is slightly 
bitter. — C. Resin, a neutral principle piscidin and a bitter gluco- 
side. — U. Soporific, narcotic, anodyne and sudorific. Dose: 1 to 3 
grams. 

Alstonia Constricta 

N. Australian Fever Bark. — 0. The bark of Alstonia constricta; 
Apocynacew. — H. Australia. — D. In quills or troughs of various 
lengths, usually about 15 to 20 cm. long, the bark itself being up 
to 6 mm. thick ; the outer surface usually is covered with a rough, 




Fig. 281. 

fissured, spongy and friable corky layer, which is grayish-brown 
with ash-gray patches or occasionally almost the entire surface 
is whitish-gray ; sometimes the corky layer is covered with lichens 
and in a small proportion of the pieces it is altogether wanting; 
the inner surface is superficially dark brown, often splintery or 
coarsely fibrous and torn, showing light orange-brown in the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



335 



interior parts of the bark; the fracture is fibrous and splintery; a 
smooth-cut transverse section of a piece previously soaked in 
water is, as in Fig. 281, with rather dark-brown mottled cork, 
bright-yellow middle bark and the inner bark with numerous 
dark-colored short tangentially stretched clusters arranged in 
longer tangential rows; odor faint and taste intensely bitter. — 
C. Bitter taste is probably due to an alkaloid, alstonine. — U. Used 
for similar purposes as Cinchona, as a bitter tonic and anti-peri- 
odic. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, best in fluid extract. 

A Similar Drug is Dita Bark, the bark of Alstonia scholaris; 
Apocynacece. This drug is obtained in the Philippine Islands. In 
thick troughs or partial quills of various lengths from 5 to 20 cm. 
long (Fig. 282) ; the corky layer is rough, fissured, leather-brown, 




Fig. 282. 

frequently marked with black spots ; the inner surface is brownish- 
gray and striated lengthwise; the fracture is short and hard, yel- 
lowish-brown or leather-colored, the inner bark being obscurely tan- 
gentially striated on section ; no odor, bitter taste. — C. A peculiar 
bitter principle ditain, an alkaloid ditamine, etc. — U. Used for 
similar purposes as Alstonia constricta, but probably less active. 



GROUP XLIII 

The barks of this group are characterized by a more or less 
distinctly checkered or quadratically marked striation. This 
marking is due to an arrangement of bast-cells similar to that 
which gives the barks of the previous group the tangential mark- 



336 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ing, but in addition to this, the medullary rays and bast por- 
tions of the fibro-vascular bundles which give barks of Group 
XLI the radial striation are also well marked, and these two 
features together result in a distinctly quadratically checkered 
striation. 

Thin, tough quills, glossy greenish or yellowish-brown outer sur- 
face; bitter astringent taste Salix. 

Flat, pale brownish-white pieces with corky layer removed; 

mucilaginous taste TJlmus. 

Large, flat pieces or troughs, reddish-brown externally; fibrous 

fracture; acrid taste Quillaja. 

Brittle pieces or small quills, externally yellowish-gray, inner sur- 
face somewhat darker; often with conchoidal depressions 
externally Granatum. 

Quills or troughs, cork warty, ash-gray, or wanting; fracture 

splintery, coarsely fibrous Fraxinus. 

Large troughs or flat pieces, smooth, dark-brown and mottled on 

outer surface; bork generally absent Juglans. 

Salix 

N. Willow Bark. — 0. The bark of Salix alba and other varieties 
of Salix; Salicacece. — H. Europe and North America. — D. Thin, 
tough, flexible quills, or irregular pieces varying in thickness 
from 14 to 2 mm., the bark from the trunk often considerably 



§§§§1 jSm M^ttMRW 

n^ - 

Fig. 283. 

thicker ; outer surface glossy greenish-gray to grayish or yellow- 
ish-brown, with a greenish layer under the thin outer bark; the 
corky layer sometimes slightly warty, in older barks occasionally 
silver-gray from lichenous patches ; the inner surface smooth and 
pale cinnamon-brown, or sometimes slightly reddish, peeling off 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



337 



in thin, finely fibrous liber sheets ; fracture tough and fibrous ; on 
transverse section (Fig. 283) the striation appears quadratically 
checkered; no odor; astringent and bitter taste. — C. Salicin, 1 to 
3 per cent; tannin 10 to 12 per cent. — U. Tonic, astringent, 
slightly febrifuge. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. 

Ulmus 

N. Elm Bark, Slippery Elm Bark. — 0. The inner bark of Ulmus 
fulva; Ulmacece. — H. United States. — D. In flat, flexible pieces or 
troughs of various sizes up to one-half meter or more in length 
and up to 1 or 2 decimeters in width, but usually smaller; about 
3 mm. thick; the outer bark is removed so that both outer and 
inner surfaces are of the same color, pale brownish-white, the 




inner surface slightly ridged longitudinally; fracture tough and 
very fibrous, mealy; a smooth-cut transverse section (Fig. 284) 
shows delicate quadratic markings due to tangential liber and 
radiating medullary rays ; odor faint and taste insipidly mucilag- 
inous. — C. Mucilage. — U. Demulcent and emollient. Dose, ad 
libitum, of the mucilage. Powdered slippery elm bark is said to 
be sometimes adulterated with corn meal, which can be detected 
by aid of a microscope. 



Quillaja 

N. Soap Bark, Quillaja, — 0. The inner bark of Quillaja sapona- 
ria; Rosacea. — H. Chili and Peru. — D. In large, flat pieces or shal- 
low troughs, the bark itself about 4 to 8 mm. thick ; the outer sur- 
face, deprived of its bork, is brownish-white, with occasional 



338 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



patches of reddish-brown corky layer, the inner surface is pale 
brownish-white, and the interior of the bark on fresh fracture is 
nearly white. The structure is woody and fibrous, fracture 
coarsely splintery, with pale brownish bast fibers with adher- 
ent white tissue and glistening from oxalate of calcium crys- 
tals; a smooth-cut transverse section (Fig. 285) is delicately 







Fig. 285. 

quadratically striated or checkered ; odor none, taste persist- 
ently acrid. — 0. About 9 per cent saponin. — U. The powder is 
sternutatory. Internally administered it is stimulant and diu- 
retic. Dose: 1 to 2 grams in infusion. 

Often used for washing delicate fabrics, silk, lace, etc. ; also as 
a shampoo for the hair. 

Fraxinus 



N. White Ash Bark. — 0. The bark of Fraxinus Americana; 
Oleacecs. — H. North America. — D. Quills or troughs, the bark 
itself up to 5 mm, thick; outer bark or corky layer ash-gray and 
warty, but often removed; inner surface smooth and yellowish- 
white; fracture coarsely fibrous and splintery, a smooth-cut sec- 
tion showing quadratically checkered appearance; odor aromatic, 
weak; taste acrid bitter. — C. Glucoside, bitter principle, etc.; 
analysis incomplete. — U. Diuretic, uterine tonic and emmena- 
gogue. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. 

Juglans. — Stem bark is usually tangentially striated with the 
radiating markings obscure, but the bark of the root, which in its 
coarse appearance closely resembles that of the stem, except that 
it is often much thicker, is usually quadratically checkered, with 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 339 

both tangential and radial striae very plain, especially if a thin 
section is examined while being cleared in solution of hydroxide 
of potassium under the microscope, less so when totally cleared. 

Granatum. — While most pieces of this bark show no striation, 
a few may be met with in which quadratic markings are deli- 
cately but distinctly shown. The bark may, therefore, sometimes 
be looked for in this group. For full description, however, see 
the next group. 

GROUP XLIV 

While a finished and cleared section of a bark of this group 
will show the same general structure that is observed in barks 
in general, yet in a smooth-cut section examined by reflected 
light the appearance is rather uniform, both in color and texture, 
and even in the few barks in which there are clusters of peculiar 
cells these are not arranged in any manner to suggest striation. 

Heavy, long, flattish pieces or troughs, the bark up to 

15 mm. thick, reddish-brown Coto. 

Similar to above, rust-brown, outer surface fissured and 

shrunken Paracoto. 

Narrow, brittle fragments, shaved from twigs, about 1 

mm. thick, whitish wood adhering to inner surface.Prinos. 

Irregular pieces or troughs, outer surface grayish - 
brown with transverse warts, or reddish-brown 
patches where the cork is detached. Hamamelidis Cortex. 

Troughs or quills, up to 30 cm. long, younger bark 

mottled, older with rough cork Cascara. 

Thin bark in rolled quills, externally grayish-brown to 
blackish-brown with small transverse whitish cork- 
warts, inner surface brownish-yellow Frangula. 

Thin quills or troughs, glossy purplish-brown with scat- 
tered warts and blackish dots Viburnum Prunif. 

Quills or troughs, brownish-gray with whitish patches, 
marked with minute black dots and scattered small 
spines Xanthoxylum. N. 

Quills or flattish pieces, brownish-gray with many large 

conical projections tipped with spines Xanthoxylum. S. 

Irregular pieces or troughs, externally brown and rough 

from warts; inner surface pale brownish-yellow. . . Chionanthus. 

Brittle pieces or small quills, externally yellowish-gray, 
inner surface somewhat darker; often with conchoi- 
dal depressions externally Granatum. 



340 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Irregular pieces, outer surface marbled or grained, 
fragile, soft, rust-brown; characteristic taste and 
odor Sassafras. 

Irregular pieces, outer surface pale yellowish-brown 
with lighter spots, inner surface smooth and 
brownish-yellow; fracture abrupt, almost waxy. . .Ptelea. 

Coto 

N. Coto Bark. — 0. The bark of some unknown South American 
tree. — H. Bolivia. — D. In flattish pieces or troughs 0.2 to 0.3 
meters long, the bark itself being from 5 to 15 mm. thick; or in 
irregular pieces (Fig. 286); outer surface reddish-brown, inner 
surface somewhat darker colored; fracture granular in outer 
layer, coarsely fibrous in bast portion of bark; a transverse sec- 
tion shows many golden-yellow clusters of sclerenchymatous 




Fig. 286. 



cells, but no striation; the odor is aromatic, reminding of carda- 
mom, camphor, cajeput-oil with a faint trace of cinnamon; taste 
pungent aromatic and slightly bitter. — C. A bitter acrid prin- 
ciple called cotoin, several resins, volatile oil, etc. — U. Highly 
recommended as a remedy for acute and chronic diarrhoeas, dys- 
entery, etc. Dose: 0.06 to 1 gram. 

A spurious coto bark, called Paracoto Bark, is also used. Its 
origin is also unknown, but it is probably the bark of a variety 
of Nectandra. — H. Bolivia. — D. In flat pieces of uniform rust- 
brown color on all surfaces, up to 15 or rarely 20 mm. thick, the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



341 



best being about two-thirds of the entire thickness; the onter 
surface is transversely fissured and shrunken in length so that 
the bast projects somewhat in the manner shown in Saigon cin- 
namon; the bast is coarsely fibrous, striate on the inner surface; 
a smooth transverse section shows a continuous tangential line 
of light-yellow sclerenchymatous cells under the cork, and many 
irregularly scattered clusters of similar cells throughout the 
bast portion, giving the latter a speckled or dotted appearance, 
but without any distinct arrangement in rows; a smooth longi- 
tudinal cut shows these clusters as short longitudinal lines; the 
odor is nutmeg-like. — U. In action this bark is similar to, but 
weaker than the genuine coto bark, although it is maintained by 
some writers that most, if not all, of the coto bark now in the 
trade is in reality paracoto bark. 

Prinos 

N. Black Alder Bark. — 0. The bark of Prinos verticillatus; 
Aquifoliacece. — H. United States and Canada. — D. In thin, nar- 




Fig. 287. 



row brittle fragments, about 1 mm. thick, seldom more than 10 
or 12 mm. wide and about 5 to 6 cm. long ; the pieces of bark 
show that they were shaved from the twigs with knives, the edges 
being thin and the middle of the pieces thickest, with often 
shreds of whitish wood adhering; the outer surface is brownish- 
gray or ash-gray, with lighter colored irregular patches and 
darker colored dots and lines and often with patches of light 
gray lichens; the inner surface is pale green, except where the 
whitish shreds of wood are attached; fracture abrupt, showing no 



342 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

striation in bast, but usually showing a fissure between the outer 
and inner bark, the corky layer separating readily even in the 
whole bark, with a tendency to curl the edges outward; a sec- 
tion when partly cleared, shows distinct radial lines or medul- 
lary rays, but when completely cleared these are indistinct ; in a 
section cleared with solution of hydroxide of potassium the 
corky layer is brownish with a narrow layer of yellow cells un- 
derneath, then some parenchyma of the middle bark, often torn, 
then the inner bark radially striate, with large clusters of yel- 
low bast-cells in its outer portion; nearly inodorous, taste bitter 
and astringent. — C. An unnamed amorphous bitter principle, 
resin, tannin, etc. — U. Astringent, bitter tonic. Dose: 2 to 5 
grams, best in fluid extract. 

Hamamelidis Cortex 

N. Hamamelis Bark, Witchhazel Bark. — 0. The bark of young 
branches of Hamamelis Virginiana; Hamamelidacece. — H. North 
America. — D. In irregularly quilled and bent pieces, or troughs, 




Fig. 288. 

about 8 to 10 mm. wide and 1 to 1.5 mm. thick; outer surface 
smooth grayish-brown, with transverse warts, or reddish brown, 
with detached patches of darker-colored grayish-brown cork, 
dotted with scattered blackish warts ; or occasionally the cork is 
rubbed off from the warts, when they appear lighter than the 
general surface; inner surface paler brown, slightly striate and 
with small elevated dots; the fracture abrupt or faintly tough in 
the bast of older pieces of bark; a section examined under the 
microscope shows faint tangential striation which is not seen with 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



343 



the naked eye; the odor is faint bnt peculiar, and taste astrin- 
gent. — C. About 8 per cent tannin. — U. Tonic astringent. Has 
been recommended as a remedy to prevent miscarriage, and locally 
as an application to wounds, bruises, hemorrhoids, etc. Dose: 2 to 
4 grams. 

The bark and twigs of witchhazel are chopped up together and 
distilled with water and alcohol to make witchhazel extract; 
nothing but alcohol and water distils over, so that the prepara- 
tion and the process both are absurd. 

Cascara Sagrada 

N. Cascara, Cascara Sagrada, Chittem Bark. — 0. The bark of 
Rhamnus Purshiana; Rhamnacece. — H. Western parts of United 
States, especially the region of the Rocky Mountains. — D. Thin, 
brittle troughs or quills, from 2 to 20 cm. long, the bark itself 





Fig. 289. 

about 2 mm. thick; in quite young bark the outer surface is mot- 
tled as shown in Fig. 289, at the left, the dark parts being nearly 
black, the light parts whitish or ash-colored, with intermediate 
shades of brown; in older barks the contrast is not so marked, 
the entire surface appearing brownish-gray, although the pecu- 
liar figuring is often present; the inner surface is yellowish- 
brown to orange-brown when fresh, but darkening to a uniform 
brown with age. The root bark (Fig. 289, at the right) is thicker, 
darker, irregularly twisted or bent, and with a thick rough ex- 



344 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



ternal bark, as shown in the smaller drawing. All thicker pieces 
are somewhat fibrous in fracture in the bast portion. Odorless, 
taste bitter, and the bark stains the saliva yellow upon being 
chewed. — 0. Three different resins, tannin,. and a neutral crystal- 
lizable substance. — U. Valuable tonic laxative in chronic constipa- 
tion. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, best in fluid extract or other fluid 
form. 

Cascara bark must be kept for at least one year after collect- 
ing, because the fresh bark is too acrid and produces griping. 

Frangula 

N. Buckthorn Bark. — 0. The bark of Rhamnus Frangula; Bham- 
naceoe. — H. Europe. — D. Quills or troughs, about the thickness of a 




Fig. 290. 



Fig. 291. 



little finger, consisting of bark from 0.5 to 1 mm. thick ; outer sur- 
face dull grayish or blackish-brown, with many small whitish, some- 
times transversely elongated cork-Avarts (Fig. 290); the exter- 
nal layer or epidermis can be easily detached and shows a pur- 
plish color on its inner surface ; the inner surface of the bark is 
smooth, orange or reddish-brown, or dark brown in older bark; 
fracture brittle, showing short fibers in the inner or bast portion; 
odor weak, but peculiar, and the taste sweetish-bitter. — C. Fran- 
gulin, which is a yellow, odorless and tasteless glucoside; emo- 
din, etc.; on chewing the bark the saliva is colored yellow. — U. 
Mild purgative; when fresh, it is very violent in its action and 
therefore it must be kept for at least a year before it is used. 
Dose: 2 to 10 grams, best as fluid extract. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



345 



Fig. 290 shows the bark in natural size, while a transverse sec- 
tion is shown in Fig. 291. 

Buckthorn bark must be kept at least a year after collecting, 
before using. 

Viburnum Prunifolium 

N. Black Haw. — 0. The bark of Viburnum prunifolium and 
V. Lentago; Caprifoliacece. — H. United States. — D. Thin frag- 
ments or quills, externally glossy purplish-broAvn, with scattered 
warts and minute black dots; bark from older branches is gray- 
ish-brown ; the thin outer bark separates easily from the greenish 
middle bark ; the inner surface is smooth and of grayish- white 
color; fracture abrupt; Fig. 292 shows transverse section of bark 
of V. prunifolium; odor slight or none, and taste bitter and some- 




Fig. 292. 



what astringent. — C. Valeric acid, bitter principle viburnin, resin, 
tannin, etc. — U. Used to prevent abortion or miscarriage ; it is also 
used in uterine derangements, as dysmenorrhea, etc. Dose: 5 to 
10 grams, best as fluid extract. 



Xanthoxylum 

N. Prickly Ash Bark. — 0. The barks of Xanthoxylum American- 
um and X. Clava-Herculis; Xanthoxylacece. — H. United States; 
X. Amer., in Northern and Central States, and X. Cl.-H., in 
Southern States. — D. Northern variety: Quills or troughs or 
irregular pieces, the bark itself about 1 mm. thick; the outer sur- 
face is brownish-gray with whitish patches and minute black 
dots, and some few glossy brown two-edged spines up to 5 mm. 



346 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

long; the inner surface smooth and whitish ; fracture abrupt, the 
broken surface apparently of uniform texture, but greenish in 
the outer and yellowish in the inner layers; no odor; taste bitter- 
ish and very pungent. — D. Southern variety: Eesembles the 
former in general appearance and taste, but is up to 2 mm. thick 
and on the outer surface there are many large conical corky 
projections, sometimes up to 2 cm. high, and some stout spines 



Jtagmeni enZcuyecL Z/i. yi » 




Fig. 293. 

rising from a corky base. Northern Prickly Ash Bark has al- 
ready been mentioned in Group XLI, because its section shows 
distinct radial striation, but it is described here with the fre- 
quently used Southern bark. Fig. 293 illustrates the crude ap- 
pearance of Southern Prickly Ash Bark, and a longitudinal sec- 
tion of the same. — C. An acrid green oil, acrid soft resin, bitter 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 347 

principle, tannin, etc. — U. Stimulant, sialagogue, alterative and 
emmenagogue. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 

The bark of Aralia spinosa may be mistaken for that of Xan- 
thoxylum (especially for the Northern variety), but it is nearly 
smooth externally, with transverse rows of -slender prickles. 



Chionanthus 

N. Fringe Tree Bark. — 0. The bark of the root of Chionanthus 
Virginica; Oleacece. — H. United States. — D. Irregular, either tor- 
tuous or nearly straight troughs and pieces averaging from 2.5 
to 10 cm. in length and 1 to 2.5 cm. in width, the bark itself being 
2 to 5 mm. thick ; the external surface is of a brown color, rough, 
marked by warts, transverse ridges and irregular scars ; the inner 




Fig. 294. 

surface is pale brownish-yellow and finely striate; fracture brittle, 
the broken surface nearly white, the transverse section showing 
scattered brownish spots of bast-cell bundles, but no distinct stria- 
tion; the odor is faint, reminding of rancid cacao butter; the taste 
is bitter. — C. No accurate analysis has been' made, but saponin has 
been found. — U. Said to be alterative, aperient and diuretic. Dose : 
2 to 8 grams, best as fluid extract. 



Granatum 

N. Pomegranate, Pomegranate Bark. — 0. The bark of the stem 
and root of Tunica Granatum; Punicacece. — H. Grows wild in 
Northern Africa and Southern Asia and Europe; cultivated in all 
sub-tropical countries. — D. The root bark occurs in troughs, more 
rarely in quills, up to 10 cm. long, the bark itself being about 1 



348 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

mm. thick; externally it is grayish-yellow or brownish-gray, 
finely wrinkled (when young) or fissured and warty or scaly 
(when from older roots), but free from lichenous growths; the 
corky layer is comparatively thick and frequently marked with 
conchoidal depressions (see Fig. 295) due to sphacelation from 
secondary suber, or if these sphacelated portions have not yet 
become detached the external surface appears scaly; the inner 
surface is smooth, finely striate, grayish-yelloAV ; fracture abrupt, 
brownish-yellow, generally of uniform finely granular texture, 
more rarely showing indistinct checkered or even radial mark- 
ings ; no odor, taste bitter. The bark of the stem is similar to that 
of the root, except that it occurs more frequently in quills, and 
has a less abundant cork-formation; it is moreover often marked, 
and often nearly covered on its external surface with lichenous 
patches. — C. Its action is supposed to be due mainly to an oily 




Fig. 295. 

liquid alkaloid, pelletierine; it contains also three other allied 
alkaloids, about 20 per cent of punico-tannic acid, etc. — U. An- 
thelmintic and taenicide. Dose: 5 to 15 grams in decoction. 

Sassafras has already been described, but the bast portion of 
many of the pieces, especially when the dry bark is broken, 
appear on transverse section to be of a uniform texture, so that 
the bark might also be looked for here. For description see 
Group XLI. 

Ptelea or Wafer Ash has already been described in Group 
XLI ; many pieces, hoAvever, break or cut with a peculiar almost 
waxy fracture and show uniform texture on the broken surfaces, 
so that the drug may sometimes be looked for here. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 349 

GROUP XLV 

This group comprises only one bark, that of White Oak, which 
rarely or never comes into the drug-trade except coarsely ground 
or rasped. 

An irregularly coarse, grayish-brown powder mixed with many 

tough coarse fibers Quercus Alba. 

Quercus Alba 

N. White Oak Bark. — 0. The bark of Quercus alba; Cupuli- 
ferce. — H. United States. — D. The barks of various kinds of oaks 
are gathered and used in the tanning industry. As brought into 
trade for this purpose they are massive pieces, often a meter or 
two in length and with the coarse bork attached. White oak 
bark when prepared for the drug trade, is freed from the bork, 
and is then in coarse flat pieces, the bark itself about 5 mm. 
thick, pale brown, the inner surface with sharp projecting longi- 
tudinal ridges; fracture tough and coarsely fibrous ; a smooth- 
cut section shows quadratically checkered markings. As found 
in the drug trade, however, this bark is always coarsely ground, 
torn or rasped, so that it appears as an irregular powder, mixed 
with a mass of tough, coarse fibers, or vice versa, as coarse fibers 
with some coarse powder intermixed; the odor is faintly tan-like, 
taste strongly astringent. — C. From 5 to 15 per cent of a peculiar 
variety of tannic acid, quercitannic acid ; younger bark contains 
proportionally more of this principle than does the older bark. — 
U. Astringent; the infusion is mainly employed externally as an 
injection in leucorrhoea, etc. ; as a gargle in pharyngitis, and as a 
mouth-wash for spongy and bleeding gums. 

Black Oak Bark (from Quercus tinctoria) colors the saliva yel- 
low, which the official bark does not. This bark should not be 
employed, as its decoction or infusion, when used for instance as 
an injection in leucorrhoea, would stain the clothing. 

GROUP XLVI 

Leaf Buds 

We have already learned that some authors include under the 
group of leaf buds such structures as bulbs, corms and even 



350 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

tubers ; these structures are better separated from leaf buds, and 
have already been described under their appropriate Groups, 
XXX to XXXIII, inclusive. We speak here only of true leaf 
buds, to which no part of the stem is attached, or of which at 
least the stem does not form a part. In Latin these structures are 
called "Gemmae." 

Long, tapering, scaly leaf buds, brown and covered exter- 
nally with sticky resin Populi Gemmae. 

Populi Gemmae 

N. Poplar Buds. — 0. The buds of Populus nigra; Salicacece. — 
H. Europe. — D. The drawing shows the appearance and size of 
these buds better than words could do; they are dark brown, 
wrinkled, and covered with a sticky resinous exudation, so that 
they often adhere to each other to form lumps; odor balsamic and 




Fig. 296. 

terebinthinate, taste bitterish, balsamic and somewhat pungent. — 
C. Eesin, volatile oil, with probably small quantities of the bal- 
samic acids. — U. Poplar buds are used in combination with other 
substances for making some of the popular cough preparations, 
in which they probably act similar to tolu, etc.; used also in 
preparing ointments, to which the buds impart some ingredient 
which prevents the fats from becoming rancid. 

The buds of .the North American plant, Populus oalsamifera, 
are used in a similar manner as those from the black poplar; 
they are known as Balm of Gilead Buds. 

LEAVES 

The student is supposed to have acquired a knowledge of the 
nature of leaves and of their forms and structure from his read- 
ing some work on botany, or from the lectures on that subject. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 351 

There are some characteristics, however, which are of especial im- 
portance to pharmacognosists and which must be mentioned 
here. Leaves are covered by an epidermis, which usually has 
more stomata on the under side than on the upper side; it is 
also often thicker, as well as smoother, on the upper side than 
on the under ; on section it is seen that cells are crowded closely 
against the upper epidermis, while they are separated by large 
intercellular spaces in the lower part of the leaf, these intercel- 
lular spaces communicating with the outer air by means of the 
breathing pores (stomata). As the "palisade" cells of the upper 
layer of the leaf also contain more chlorophyll bodies, the upper 




surface shows a deeper green color, while the under side is often 
made to look still paler by the innumerable small hairs, which grow 
by preference on the under side of leaves. Fig. 297 shows dia- 
gramatically a section of a part of a leaf, as well as a portion of 
epidermis. 

When ground or broken leaves are to be examined, the epider- 
mis and its cells, the shapes and distribution of the stomata, the 
presence or absence, as the case may be, of trichomes (outgrowths 
of the epidermis, as glands, hairs, scales, etc.), and the appear- 
ance of the latter constitute the characteristics by which a de- 



352 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

termination is made, but when whole leaves are examined their 
shapes are described as in works of botany. 

Leaves may be divided into coriaceous and herbaceous leaves, 
and while this division is not always distinct, nevertheless it will 
be found to be of practical convenience ; in a few drugs, how- 
ever, some lots will appear to be of one kind, and other lots re- 
semble more the other kind, as is the case occasionally in coca, 
chestnut leaves, etc. 

Leaves are coriaceous or leathery when the epidermis is thick- 
ened and hardened and the skeleton or frame-work of fibro- 
vascular bundles is more or less lignified, so that the leaf retains 
its shape and size on drying. Herbaceous leaves, on the other 
hand, are those in which the epidermis and skeleton both are soft 
and succulent, so that the leaf shrinks in every direction on dry- 
ing, in length, width and thickness, so that it becomes much 
crumpled, often much broken and torn, and sometimes consider- 
ably reduced in size; such leaves may be softened by steaming, 
when they are to be examined, as they can then be flattened out 
easily and their forms shown. 

Some leaves are pellucid-punctate from numerous glands 
(often intercellular spaces in their interiors) filled with vola- 
tile oil, which appear as translucent dots on looking through the 
leaf at some bright light, or at the sun. 

Most leaves become brownish on drying, so that the color is 
rarely a pure green in the drugs; moreover the extractive mat- 
ters in the parenchyma of the leaves are usually dark brown, so 
that even in .greenish leaves this brown coloring material prepon- 
derates over the green chlorophyll, and extracts or tinctures from 
leaves are usually brown. 

Leaves may be grouped as follows: 



Leaves, 



Coriaceous j Sim P le XL ™ 

[Compound XLAIII 

„ , Simple XLIX 

Herbaceous A L 

[ Compound L 

It must be remembered, however, that flowering tops consist 
mainly of leaves, and some drugs which are supposed to consist 
of leaves alone are often terminal twigs with leaves and occasion- 
ally flowers or even immature fruits; especially is this the case 
with the narcotic herbs, as belladonna, aconite leaves, etc., and 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 353 

so commonly and regularly was it the case with hyoscyamus that 
now the Pharmacopoeia defines this drug to be "the leaves and 
flowering tops." Some leaves are sometimes found in the trade 
as leaves alone, but more frequently as leafy twigs, and a few of 
these have been already described as "leafy branches" in Group 
XXXIV; mention of these is, however, also made under the ap- 
propriate groups of leaves. 



GROUP XLVII 

Simple Coriaceous Leaves 

Scythe-shaped, 15 to 30 cm. long, margin entire; grayish- 
green Eucalyptus. 

Roundish-obovate, about 15 mm. long, margin crenate or ser- 
rate; yellowish-green; pellucid-punctate, with a gland 
at each serration Buchu (short) . 

.Slender linear-lanceolate leaves, about 3 to 4 em. long, mar- 
gin serrate ; otherwise like the preceding Buchu (long) . 

Obovate or oblong spatulate, 15 to 20 mm. long, margin en- 
tire; lower surface reticulate; brownish-green Uva Ursi. 

Variable in size and shape, ovate, obovate-oblong to lanceo- 
late, 2 to 7 cm. long, margin entire; green to brownish; 
with a curved line on each side of the midrib Coca. 

Obovate to oblong, 10 to 25 mm. long, margin with 2 to 6 

dentations on each side; light-green Damiana. 

Ovate-oblong, to 5 cm. long, with long petiole, margin finely 

crenulate; whitish to grayish-green, downy Salvia. 

Rolled into small balls or cylinders; grayish-green, bluish- 
green to blackish Thea. 

Oblong or oblong-lanceolate, acute at both ends, 5 to 10 cm. 
long, margin entire, somewhat wavy; pellucid-punctate; 
brownish or brownish-green Laurus. 

Broadly oval, about 5 cm. long, margin entire; rough on both 
sides, glossy on upper and hairy on under surface; brown- 
ish-green Boldus. 

Linear, about 25 mm. long, margin revolute; dark-green above, 
whitish woolly, glandular, with prominent midrib under- 
neath Rosmarinus. 

Lanceolate, short-petiolate, 7 to 10 cm. long, to 25 mm. 
broad, margin entire and somewhat wavy; thin, smooth, 
and often with scars from insects Duboisia. 

Ovate, petiolate, about 5 cm. long, margin entire; thick, 

glaucous, pale green Manzanita. 



;54 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Roundish-oval or obovate, about 4 cm. long, 2 or more cm. 
broad, margin slightly serrate with appressed spicular 
teeth; smooth, glossy, green or brownish-green G-aultheria. 

Oblanceolate, about 5 cm. long, margin serrate at apex and 

nearly entire near base; smooth, dark-green Chimaphila. 

Oblong-lanceolate, 5 to 10 cm. long, margin irregularly den- 
tate; greenish or brown; upper surface smooth and cov- 
ered with brownish resin, often agglutinated into lumps, 
lower surface white-hairy Eriodyction. 

Eucalyptus 

N. Eucalyptus. — 0. The leaves of Eucalyptus globulus; Myrta- 
cece. Only the leaves from the older parts of the tree should be 




Fig. 298 



used, as those from the younger branches are comparatively worth- 
less. — H. Indigenous to Australia, but now cultivated in all sub- 
tropical countries. — D. This drug has already been mentioned 
under Group XXXIV, leafy twigs, as it comes into trade in that 
shape in the bales; but as it is usually garbled before reach- 
ing the retail dealer, the latter obtains it as leaves alone, 
and therefore its description has been postponed to this place. 
The leaves are petiolate, lanceolate scythe-shaped, from 15 to 30 
cm. long, more or less rounded at the base, tapering at apex, 
margin entire, coriaceous, pellucid-punctate or glandular, gray- 
ish-green; a leaf from the older parts of the tree is represented in 
half natural size in Fig. 298 (a) ; odor strongly camphoraceous and 
the taste pungently aromatic, bitter and astringent, leaving a cool- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



355 



ing taste in the mouth. A leaf from the younger branches is rep- 
resented in Fig. 298 (b), also half natural size; such leaves are 
ovate, faintly cordate at base, rounded or only slightly pointed at 
apex, bluish-green, thinner and less glandular than the scythe- 
shaped leaves, but otherwise similar except that they are far less 
active medicinally, for which reason they should not be used. In 
the bales twigs and unopened buds, of Avhich latter one is illus- 
trated (c), are generally present, though absent hi the garbled 
drug as it reaches the retail pharmacist. — C. About 6 per cent 
volatile oil, called "eucalyptol," some tannin, resin, etc. — U. 
Stimulant tonic, stomachic, blennorrhetic, diaphoretic and diu- 
retic; by some esteemed to be febrifuge. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, best 
in fluid extract. The volatile oil is used as an antiseptic. 

Buchu 

N. Buchu. The word "buchu" ("bucco, bukko") is of Afri- 
can origin, and is indeclinable and neuter. — 0. The leaves of 
Barosma betulina; Rutacece. — H. Southern Africa.— D. There are 




two trade varieties of this drug, short and long, of which the 

former is the best, although the long is the higher-priced variety. 

Short Buchu is composed of leaves about 15 mm. long, round- 



356 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ish-obovate with somewhat wedge-shaped base, or varying be- 
tween oval and obovate, obtuse at apex, margin crenate or ser- 
rate, leaves rather thick, dnll yellowish-green, pellucid-punctate, 
with a gland at each indentation; odor and taste strongly mint- 
like, aromatic, pungent and bitterish. — C. One to iy 2 per cent 
volatile oil, etc. ; the oil is the active constituent. — U. Stimulant 
diuretic. Dose: 1 to 2 grams, best in fluid extract. 

Long Buchu is obtained from B. serratifolia; the leaves are 3 
to 4 cm. long, thin, slender, lanceolate, green, less leathery but 
otherwise similar to short buchu. Long buchu is often mixed 
with the leaves of Empleurum serrulatum, which are narrower 
and without oil-glands at the extreme apex. 

The illustrations in Fig. 299 are as follows: A, leaf of Barosma 
crenulata, natural size, and a, the same enlarged ; B, leaf of B. be- 
tidina, natural size, and b, the same enlarged ; C, leaf of B. serrati- 
folia, natural size ; D, leaf of Empleurum serrulatum, natural size, 
and d, apex of same, enlarged; E, leaf of Barosma crenata, which 
sometimes constitutes part of the drug. 

Uva Ursi 

N. Uva Ursi, Bearberry Leaves. — 0. The leaves of Arctosta- 
phylos Uva-ursi; Ericacece. — H. Northern Europe and America. — 
D. Short-petioled, obovate or oblong-spatulate, 15 to 20 mm. long 
and 5 to 8 mm. broad, apex obtuse, margin entire and slightly 
revolute, upper surface with veins depressed, lower surface dis- 




Fig. 300. 

tinctly reticulate, brownish-green to brown ; odor faint and taste 
strongly astringent and somewhat bitter. — C. About 6 per cent 
tannin, arbutin, etc. — U. Astringent, diuretic and nephritic; es- 
pecially esteemed in kidney and bladder troubles. Dose: 2 to 5 
grams, in infusion or fluid extract. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



357 



Coca 

N. Coca Leaves, Cucha Leaves. The word "Coca" is of Peru- 
vian origin and is indeclinable and neuter; to treat it as a noun 
of the first (Latin) declension is a mistake. — 0. The leaves of 
Erythroxylon Coca and its varieties; Erythroxylacece. — H. Peru 
and Bolivia; cultivated. — D. From 2.5 to 7.5 cm. long, short- 
petioled, closely net-veined on both sides, with a thick midrib, on 
both sides of which there is a more or less distinctly marked 
curved line (not connected with the venation) running from the 
base to the apex, margin entire, greenish to greenish-brown or 




Fig. 301. 



even brown in color with faint tea-like odor and bitterish aro- 
matic taste. Fig. 301 shows a leaf of Erythroxylon Coca known 
as "Huanuco Coca." 

The leaves of the Truxillo variety are smaller than the Huanuco 
Coca, but are said to be richer in cocaine. They are derived from 
Erythroxylon Truxillense; they are up to 5 cm. long and one-half 
as broad, pale green; thin, and brittle. — C. Cocaine, etc. Both 
varieties should yield at least 0.5 per cent of the ether-soluble 
alkaloids of coca. — U. Stimulant, resembling coffee in action. 
Said to be a general excitant. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, chewed, or in 



358 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



infusion or fluid extract. Cocaine is a local anaesthetic; used as a 
stimulant and intoxicant by so-called "cocaine-fiends," to whom 
the habitual use of this drug proves as destructive as the opium 
or hashish habits do to their respective votaries. 

Damiana 

N. Damiana. — 0. The leaves of Turnera aphrodisiaca, T. 
microphilla, and perhaps other varieties of Turnera; Tumeracece. — 
H. Mexico and lower California. — D. The form and size of the 
leaves are well shown in the drawings. Variable, short-petioled, 
obovate, or oblong, apex somewhat obtuse, base wedge-shaped 
and margin with three to six teeth on each side, veins prominent 
beneath, light green, nearly smooth, often much broken and 




Fig. 302. 



crumbled; odor agreeably aromatic and taste slightly aromatic. 
Mexican Damiana consists of small smooth leaves (a, b and c, in 
Fig. 302), and California Damiana consists of larger and broader 
leaves with redundant margin (d). — C. Volatile oil and resin. — 
U. Generally reported to be a valuable aphrodisiac. Stimulant, 
tonic and diuretic. Dose: 5 to 10 grams in fluid extract or in- 
fusion. 

False Damiana consists of the leaves of Aplopappus (or Haplo- 
pappus) discoideus (Composite^), which are frequently sold as 
Damiana. Fig. 302 (e), shows appearance and size. About 2 to 3 
cm. long, oblanceolate, with from one to three dentations on each 
side, rough, and minutely dotted; frequently mixed with the 
flower-heads (or with parts of same, involucre, florets and hairy 
pappus) of the same plant. The odor and taste of False Damiana 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



359 



differs from that of the genuine drug, and resemble more those of 
Grindelia. These leaves contain resin, but lack the aroma of true 
Damiana, and when present must be considered as adulteration. 

Salvia 

N. Sage. — 0. The leaves of Salvia officinalis; Labiatce. — H. 
Cultivated. — D. With long petiole, blade ovate-oblong, about 3 
to 7 cm. long, base rounded, apex obtuse or subacute, thick, some- 
what wrinkled, grayish-green, soft-hairy and glandulous on un- 
der side ; margin delicately crenulate ; odor aromatic, taste aro- 




Fig. 303. 



matic, bitter, somewhat astringent. Wild, gray, thick sage is 
considered the best ("Italian Sage"). — C. Volatile oil, some resin, 
tannin, etc. — U. Stimulant, astringent and vulnerary. Dose: 2 
to 5 grams in infusion. The infusion is a popular gargle for sore 
throat, etc. 



Thea 

N. Tea. — 0. The leaves of Thea Chinensis (Sinensis); Ternstroz- 
miacece. According to Hayne there are three distinct varieties of 
this plant: Thea Bohea, T. viridis and T. stricta, distinguished by 
shape of leaves and fruits. — D. In the trade these leaves are found 
rolled into little balls or cylinders, varying in size, and in color 
from grayish-green, bluish-green to blackish. The leaves themselves, 
when unfolded after steaming or infusing, are found to be short- 



360 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



petiolate, oval to oblong-lanceolate, 25 to 75 mm. long, about half as 
broad, acute at both ends, margin serrate, smooth or slightly hairy 
and glandular along the veins on the under side ; it is seldom, how- 
ever, that a leaf can be found entire, as they are mostly in small 
fragments in the drug, but sufficiently large pieces to identify 
the general form are not so rare; odor peculiar and taste astrin- 
gent and bitterish. The drawing of a whole leaf (Fig. 304) shows 
size, shape and venation of a large leaf and the other drawings 
show a portion of the epidermis of the under side (a) and a sec- 
tion of the leaf (6) with the peculiar sclerenchymatous cells in its 




Fig. 304. 



interior. — C. Volatile oil, up to 3 or 4 per cent of theine (identical 
with caffeine), up to 20 per cent tannin, etc. — U. Stimulant, ner- 
vine and astringent. Mainly used in infusion as a drink, the 
habitual and excessive use of which may produce nervous and 
digestive derangements. 

Tea is commercially divided into a number of varieties, which 
may, however, be broadly grouped as black and green teas. These 
varieties are obtained from the same plant, the differences de- 
pending on size and age of leaves, time of gathering, mode of pre- 
paring, as well as on peculiarities of soil and climate. In the fol- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



361 



lowing lists the names of these varieties are given in the order of 
quality, beginning with the finest, made from the tender leaf 
buds, down to the coarsest, from the hard and woody expanded 
leaves. 

Black Teas; with leaves usually merely rolled into cylinders ; 
var.: Flowery pekoe, orange pekoe, pekoe, pekoe souchong, sou- 
chong, congon, bohea. 

Green Teas; with leaves usually rolled into balls or twisted 
cylinders, and generally colored green artificially; var.: Gun- 
powder, imperial, hyson, young hyson, hyson skin, caper. 

Green teas are considered better or more fragrant, but they 
contain more tannin and are therefore more astringent. Adul- 
teration with other leaves can be determined by infusing the 
leaves and then spreading out and comparing the suspected leaves 
with the known shape and structure of the genuine leaves. 

Lauras 

N. Laurel Leaves, Bay Leaves. — 0. Leaves of Lauras nobilis; 
Lauracece. — H. Europe. — D. Fig. 305 shows size and venation; 




Fig. 305. 

short petiole, oblong or oblong-lanceolate, acute at both ends, 
about 7 to 10 cm. long, margin entire and somewhat wavy, finely 
veined on under side, pellucid-punctate, greenish-brown to 
brownish, odor agreeably aromatic and taste bitterish. — 0. Vola- 
tile oil, some bitter substance, tannin, etc. — U. Employed as a 
flavoring in cooking. 



Boldus 

N. Boldo, Boldo Leaves. — 0. The leaves of Peumus Boldus; JIo- 
nimiacece, — H. Chili, cultivated. — D. Broadly oval, about 5 cm. 



362 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

long, margin entire, rough on both sides from raised glands, 
glossy on upper and hairy on under surfaces, brownish-green to 
reddish-brown; disagreeably fragrant and pungently aromatic 
and bitter. — C. About 2 per cent volatile oil, an alkaloid boldine, 
a glucoside boldoglucin, some aromatic resin, tannin, etc. — U. 




Fig. 306. 

Stimulant nervine, excitant; also useful in inflammations of 
genito-urinary organs, in hepatic affections, etc. Dose: 0.1 to 0.5 
gram, best in fluid extract. 

Rosmarinus 

N. Rosemary Leaves, Rosemary. — 0. The leaves of Rosmarinus 
officinalis; Labiatce. — H. Cultivated. — D. Linear, nearly sessile, 
about 2 to 3 cm. long, 1.5 to 3 mm. broad, margin entire and 
slightly revolute, dark-green above, whitish woolly, glandular 
and with prominent midrib underneath; odor camphoraceous, 



Fig. 307. 

taste strongly aromatic. — C. Volatile oil and bitter extractive. — 
U. Stimulant, diuretic, diaphoretic, carminative and emmena- 
gogue. Dose: 1 gram or more in infusion. 

Duboisia 

N. Duboisia Leaves. — O. The leaves of Duboisia myoporoides; 
Solanacece. — H. Australia. — D. Short-petiolate, broadly lanceolate, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 363 

about 7 to 10 cm. long, 20 to 30 mm. broad, rather thin, smooth, 
apex acute, base long and tapering, margin entire and somewhat 
wavy, midrib coarse and prominent, odor slight, but disagreeable 
if any, and taste bitter acrid. Fig. 308 shows this leaf in natural 
size. — 0. Duboisine (similar to hyoscyamine or atropine), resin, 
etc. — U. Rarely used except for the manufacture of duboisine. 
The action is similar to that of belladonna, like which it is some- 




Fig. 308. 

times used. Excitomotor, in large doses narcotic poison, ano- 
dyne; dilates the pupil of the eye. Dose: 0.05 to 0.3 gram in fluid 
extract. 

Manzanita 

N. Manzanita.— O. The leaves of Arctostaphylos glauca; Erica- 
cece. — H. California. — D. Ovate-oblong, or elliptical, petiolate, 




Fig. 309. 

about 5 cm. long, apex acute, base obtuse, margin entire, thick, 
hairy, pale-green; without odor, taste astringent and somewhat 
bitter. — C. Arbutin, about 10 per cent tannin, etc. — U. Used like 
uva ursi; astringent, diuretic, tonic. Dose: 2 to 8 grams in fluid 
extract. 

Gaultheria and Chimaphila are rarely met with in trade as 
leaves alone, and for this reason they have already been fully 



364 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

described under Group XXXIV, Leafy Twigs. As garbled lots, 
consisting of leaves alone may, however, be met with occasion- 
ally, they are also mentioned here. 

Eriodyction is officially and generally described as " leaves" 
and would therefore be looked for here, but as a matter of fact 
this drug often consists of twigs with leaves attached, belong- 
ing therefore under Group XXXIV, where it has been described 
and figured. 

See also the next group. 

GROUP XLVIII 

Compound Coriaceous Leaves 

A compound leaf consists of a number of leaflets attached to 
a midrib; the drugs mentioned under this group are easily recog- 
nized as compound leaves when they come into the trade in 
bales, but they are sometimes carefully garbled and may then 
be mistaken for simple leaves ; this is especially true of India or 
Tinnevelly Senna. Care must be taken not to mistake compound 
leaves for leafy branches. 

Whole leaf with. 8 to 10 leaflets; leaflets various sizes, 2 to 4 cm. 

• long, lanceolate, uneven at base, entire, grayish-green Senna. 

Whole leaf with 5 to 11 leaflets; leaflets about 10 to 15 cm. long, 
oval or ovate-oblong, emarginate, uneven at base, margin en- 
tire, pellucid-punctate, dull grayish-green Pilocarpus. 

Senna 

N. Senna, Senna Leaves. — 0. The leaflets of Cassia acutifolia 
(Alexandria Senna) and C. angustifolia (India Senna) Legumi- 
nosoe. — H. Africa; the India Senna is cultivated in India. — D. 
There are two trade varieties, known as " Alexandria Senna" and 
" India Senna," which must be separately described: Alexandria 
Senna in bales sometimes consists of the whole leaf, a midrib 
with four to five pairs of leaflets, mixed with a short and broad 
legume, and occasionally with other or foreign leaves. Before 
using it should be carefully garbled and all foreign substances re- 
jected ; when thus garbled Alexandria senna consists of broadly lan- 
ceolate or ovate-lanceolate, almost sessile, subcoriaceous leaflets, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



365 



about 15 to 25 mm. long and up to 10 mm. broad, apex tapering or 
pointed, base unequally oblique, margin entire, grayish-green 
and slightly pubescent; odor peculiar, taste nauseous bitter. 
India Senna generally occurs in trade well garbled, as leaflets 
alone, lanceolate, from 3 to 5 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad, apex 
acute, base unequally oblique, margin entire, smooth, yellowish- 
green or dull green; odor peculiar, somewhat tea-like, and taste 
nauseous bitter and somewhat mucilaginous. — C. Cathartic acid, 
chrysophan, etc. — U. Active, but not acrid cathartic. Dose: 2 




to 10 grams in infusion or fluid extract; often combined with 
magnesium sulphate. 

The letters refer to drawings in Fig. 310. Alexandria senna 
(6) is usually considerably broken, mixed with pods, midribs 
coarse stems, and with more or less of the leaves of Solenostemma 
Argel (/) or "Argel leaves;" it also frequently contains leaves 
from Cassia ohovata (c) and sometimes of Tephrosia (d) and 
Coriaria (e). 

India senna is much less broken than Alexandria senna. The 
senna cultivated at Tinnevelly, in East India, is the best kind of 



366 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



India senna; it consists almost entirely of whole leaflets of good 
fresh color, and is free from stems, midribs and other admixtures. 
Alexandria senna leaves, entirely free from admixtures, are 
said to be about 50 per cent more active than India senna, and 
this is therefore the better variety. But for retail trade, the 
Tinnevelly senna is preferred on account of its clean and un- 
broken and therefore more sightly condition (a). 



Pilocarpus 

N. Pilocarpus, Jaborandi.— 0. The leaflets of Pilocarpus Jdbo- 
randi (and also of P. microphallus); Rutacece. — H. Brazil. — D. In 





the trade the entire leaf, consisting of midrib with from five to 
eleven leaflets, is often found, often even with a piece of twig 
attached, as shown in Fig. 311. The leaflets (Fig. 312-a) are 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 367 

short-stalked, broadly oval or ovate-oblong, apex obtuse or 
slightly emarginate or notched, unequal at the base, margin en- 
tire and slightly revolute or rolled back on the under surface 
of the leaflet, smooth, pellucid-punctate, grayish or dull green 
color; odor slightly aromatic when bruised and taste somewhat 
pungent and bitter. — C. The alkaloids, pilocarpine, and jabo- 
rine, volatile oil, etc. ; the drug should yield not less than 0.6 per 
cent of alkaloids on assay. — U. Sialagogue and diaphoretic. Dose : 
1 to 5 grams, in infusion or fluid extract. 

Fig. 311 shows a whole leaf of P. Jaborandi as it occurs in the 
drug; Fig. 312 shows a leaflet (a) natural size, showing venation; 
a portion of epidermis of under surface, slightly enlarged, showing 
gland dots (b) ; the same more highly enlarged, by reflected light 
{d), and by transmitted light (e). 

The leaflets of P. microphyllus are much smaller, but otherwise, 
similar. 

GROUP XLIX 

Simple Herbaceous Leaves 

An herbaceous leaf has delicate and soft epidermis and the 
vessels and prosenchymatous cells of the skeleton are but slightly 
or not at all lignified, so that on drying it shrinks in every direction, 
becoming thinner and smaller than the growing leaf before gather- 
ing. In the drugs of this group many leaves are much shrunken and 
crumpled, so that they must be softened by steaming or infusing 
before they can be flattened out for examination, and most of 
them are so much broken that perfectly shaped leaves are not 
always easily obtained. 

Hyoscyamus, Maidenhair Fern, Tea, the drugs of Group IX, 
Flowering Tops, and the Inflorescence of Tilia may easily be 
mistaken for simple herbaceous leaves, and attention is therefore 
called to them here. See also introductory remarks to Group IX. 

Broadly ovate, thin, smooth, 5 to 15 cm. long, petiolate, 
apex tapering, margin entire; usually as "tops" with 
two unequal leaves at nodes Belladonnas Folia. 

Ovate, 10 to 30 cm. long, petiolate, margin crenate, reticu- 
late on under surface, densely hairy Digitalis. 



368 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Lanceolate, about 10 to 15 cm. long, apex acute, base un- 
equally cordate, margin finely crenulate, under sur- 
face with prominent venation and deeply reticulate. .Matico. 

Obliquely ovate or oval, about 10 cm. long, short petiolate, 

margin irregularly sinuate or wavy-toothed Hamamelis. 

Ovate to oblong lanceolate, acuminate, petiolate, 15 to 25 
cm. long, from 5 to 8 cm. broad, evenly feather-veined, 
margin serrate Castanea. 

Ovate, petiolate, about 15 to 25 cm. long, margin irregu- 
larly sinuously lobed or toothed, much wrinkled and 
broken Stramonii Folia. 

Oblong or oval-lanceolate, 10 to 30 cm. long, petiole 
broadly winged, apex acute, margin crenate, gray- 
felty or hairy Verbasci Folia. 

Large peltate leaf, about 9-lobed, up to 50 cm. or more 
across, lobes acuminate, margin serrate, much wrin- 
kled and broken Ricini Folia. 

Oval or ovate, lanceolate, up to 50 cm. long, apex acute, 

margin entire, brown Tabacum. 

Rolled into small balls or cylinders; grayish-green, bluish- 
green, to blackish Thea. 

Ovate, irregularly lobed leaves, up to 25 cm. long, gray- 
green, hairy; usually as leafy tops; flowers or capsules 
within persistent calyces often present Hyoscyamus. 

Frond of fern with triangular leaflets, with sporangia un- 
der recurved edges of lobes, and thin glossy-brown 
stipes Adiantum. 

Belladonnae Folia 

N. Belladonna Leaves, Deadly Night- Shade, — O. The leaves of 
Atropa Belladonna; Solanacece. — H. Europe and Asia; cultivated 
in Europe and America. — D. Broadly ovate, up to 15 cm. long, 
half as broad, apex acuminate, base tapering, petiolate, margin 
entire, thin and wrinkled, smooth, brownish-green on upper and 
grayish-green on under surfaces, both surfaces have minute 
whitish dots when examined with a lens; odor, if any, somewhat 
narcotic, taste disagreeable and bitter. — C. The alkaloid atropine 
is the most important principle; there are besides this belladon- 
nine, hyoscyamine, etc. — U. Narcotic, mydriatic (dilating the 
pupil of the eye), checks excessive sweats and suppresses secre- 
tion of milk; also physiological antidote to opium. Dose: 0.05 to 
0.1 gram, best in tincture or fluid extract. 

This drug very often consists of the tops, the twigs forming 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 369 

obtuse angles at the nodes, with two leaves of very uneven size 
at each node ; frequently with either flowers or fruits (blackish- 
red berries with persistent calyx) also present. The leaves, flow- 
ers and fruits are shown in Fig;. 313 in natural size. 




Fig. 313. 

Antidotes: If a poisonous dose has been taken, the stomach 
should be promptly evacuated, either with an emetic or stomach 
tube, and opium or physostigma given to counteract the physio- 
logical effects of the belladonna on the nervous system. 

Digitalis 

N. Digitalis, Foxglove. — 0. The leaves of Digitalis purpurea; 
Scrophulariacece. Only the leaves of the plants of second year's 
growth should be gathered. — H. Europe. — D. Ovate-oblong, 10 
to 20 cm. long, 5 to 10 cm. broad, apex acute, margin irregularly 
crenate, much wrinkled and broken, downy, the larger leaves 



370 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



with petiole winged, the smaller leaves nearly sessile ; under sur- 
face deeply reticulate with prominent midrib and venation, pale- 
green on upper surface and whitish-felty underneath; hair two 
or three-celled, simple or club-shaped, nodulated, not branched; 
odor faint, taste bitter, nauseous and somewhat acrid. — C. The 







alkaloid digitalin, etc. — U. Excito-motor, heart stimulant; diu- 
retic. Dose: 0.03 to 0.3 gram, best in tincture. 

The shaded drawing in Fig. 314 shows the under side of a leaf 
of second year, while the outline drawing shows the more slender 
shape of the first year's leaf, both natural size. Leaves from cul- 
tivated plants are less hairy than those from wild-grown plants ; 
they are also less active. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



371 



Digitalis, matico and mullein leaves have been confounded with 
each other. By comparing the figures of digitalis and matico the 
differences between these two drugs will become sufficiently ob- 
vious. Mullein leaf resembles digitalis more nearly in shape and 
general appearance, but it can readily be distinguished from dig- 
italis by its characteristic branched hairs which are easily seen 
with a lens of even quite low power. 

Digitalis does not keep well, and it should be kept in well-closed 
containers, away from the light, and a new supply should be pro- 
cured each season when the fresh crop arrives. 

Matico 

N. Matico. — 0. The leaves of Piper angiistifolium; Piperaceat. — 
H. South America. — D. Oblong-lanceolate, up to 15 cm. long, apex 
pointed, base unevenly heart-shaped, short-petiolate, margin ob- 
scurely crenulate, the upper surface tesselated (see smaller draw- 
ing in Fig. 315, enlarged 5 diameters), the under surface with 




Fig. 315. 



very prominent hairy midrib and venation, and deeply reticulate 
(drawing two-thirds natural size), wrinkled, brittle and very 
much broken, brownish-green; odor peculiar, taste aromatic, 
spicy and bitter. — C. About 2y 2 per cent volatile oil, a soft, green, 
pungent resin, artanthic acid, tannin, etc.— U. Stimulant blen- 
norrhetic, useful in chronic affections of the urinary organs. 
Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best as fluid extract. 



372 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Hamamelidis Folia 



N. Hamamelis, Witch-Hazel Leaves.— 0. The leaves of Hama- 
melis Virginica; Ilamamelidacece. — H. North America. — D. 
Obliquely ovate or oval, 10 or more cm. long, short-petiolate, 
apex obtuse, margin irregularly sinuate or wavy-toothed, base 
uneven, slightly cordate, feather-veined, nearly smooth, much 
crumpled and broken, green; no odor, taste bitter, astringent. — C. 




Fig. 316. 



Tannin, bitter principle, etc. — U. Tonic, astringent; vulnerary. 
Dose: About 5 grams in infusion or fluid extract. 



Castanea 

N. Chestnut Leaves. — 0. The leaves of Castanea dentata; Cupu- 
Uferce. — H. Europe and America. — D. Ovate to oblong-lanceolate, 
up to 25 cm. long, 5 to 8 cm. broad, petiolate, apex pointed, mar- 
gin sinuate-serrate, feather-veined, smooth, green to pale brown- 
ish-green ; odor slight, taste astringent.— C. About 9 per cent tan- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 373 

nin, etc. ; no complete analysis has been made. — U. Tonic, astrin- 
gent and sedative ; has been highly spoken of as a remedy for 




Fig. 317. 

whooping cough. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best in infusion or fluid 
extract. 

Fig. 317 shows the leaf one-half natural size. 

Stramonii Folia 

N. Stramonium Leaves, Thornapple, Stinkweed, Jimson 
Weed. — 0. The leaves of Datura Stramonium and D. tatula; Solan- 




Fig. 318. 

acece. The leaves of D. tatula are gathered and used like those of 
D. Stramonium, and sold under the same name; there is no dif- 



374 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ference between the leaves of the two plants. — H. Native of Asia, 
but naturalized everywhere. — D. Ovate, petiolate, up to 25 cm. 
long, apex pointed, margin irregularly sinuously toothed or lobed, 
the sides often unsymmetrical in lobes and venation, lateral veins 
leaving midrib at a sharp angle instead of first running parallel 
with it, thin, much shrunken, crumpled and broken, slightly hairy 
on the veins, green or brownish-green; nearly inodorous, but de- 
veloping a disagreeable narcotic odor on rubbing and crushing in 
the hands, taste nauseous bitter. — C. Daturine (closely related to 
if not identical with atropine, hyoscyamine, etc.) The drug 
should yield not less than 0.25 per cent of mydriatic alkaloids. — 
U. Anodyne, narcotic and hypnotic; often smoked as a remedy 
against asthma. Dose: 0.05 to 0.25 gram; average dose about 0.1 
gram. 

Fig. 318 shows the leaf about one-third natural size. 

Verbasci Folia 

N. Mullein Leaves. — O. The leaves of Verbascam thapsus and 
other varieties of Verbascam; Scrophulariacece. — H. Europe and 
America. — D. Ovate, elliptic or oblong-lanceolate, the smaller 




Fig. 319. 



(upper) leaves sessile, the larger (lower) leaves tapering to a 
more or less winged petiole, to 30 cm. long, apex acute, margin 
crenate, densely felty or hairy on both surfaces, (the hairs 
branched; see Fig. 319), grayish-green; inodorous, taste muci- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



375 



laginous. — C. Mucilage, etc.— U. Demulcent ; used as an ingre- 
dient of pectoral teas, mainly to increase the bulk of the package 
when sold. 

Dose: Ad libitum in infusion. The leaf resembles that of Digi- 
talis, but the shapes of the hairs will differentiate them. 

Ricini Folia 

N. Castor-oil Leaves. — 0. The leaves of Ricinus communis; 
Enphorbiacece. — H. Native of India; cultivated in sub-tropical 
and warm temperate regions in Europe and America. — D. Large 
peltate or shield-shaped leaves, about 9-lobed, up to 50 cm, or 




Fig. 320. 



more across, lobes acuminate with serrate margins and promi- 
nent coarse central veins (Fig. 320), much shrunken, wrinkled 
and broken, dark-green; little odor, taste someAvhat acrid and 
disagreeable. — C. An undetermined acrid cathartic principle. — 
U. Castor-oil leaves are said to increase the secretion of milk 
when taken internally by, or when applied as cataplasms to the 
breasts of nursing women. Best used in the form of strong in- 
fusion. Dose: 5 to 15 grams. 

Tabacum 

N. Tobacco. — 0. The leaves of Nicotiana Tabacum; Solanacece. — 
H. Cultivated ; especially in subtropical and warm temperate re- 
gions. — D. The well-knoAvn dried commercial leaves as used by 



376 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

tobacconists are also used as the drug. Broadly oval or ovate, 
up to 50 cm. long, apex acute, margin entire, short petiolate or 
sessile, brown, brittle, glandular-hairy ; odor peculiar, heavy and 
oppressive, taste acrid bitter and nauseous. — C. Two to eight per 
cent of the extremely acrid and poisonous alkaloid nicotine, nico- 
tianin, resin, extractive, etc. — U. Much employed for smoking, 
chewing, and as a sternutatory or snuff. A powerful depressant 
and poison; sedative, emetic and narcotic. Dose: 0.01 to 0.05 
gram; to be used with great care ! 

Thea, which is really a coriaceous leaf, but artificially crum- 
pled and broken, might be mistaken for a herbaceous leaf and be 
sought for in this group; it is fully described under Group 
XL VII. 

For Hyoscyamus see Group IX. 

For Adiantum see Group XV. 



GROUP L 

Compound Herbaceous Leaves 

This group comprises the herbaceous compound leaves, which 
are like the simple herbaceous leaves in their structure, only dif- 
fering in shape, so that the methods of examining them are the 
same as for leaves of Group XLIX. 

Some of the flowering tops of Group IX, as for instance Cheli- 
donium, Millefolium, Absinthium, Coptis, Cannabis, etc., may be 
taken to belong in this group ; on the other hand, Aconite Leaves 
often come into trade as flowering tops, although only the leaves 
are supposed to be wanted. Adiantum might also be mistaken 
for a compound leaf. These facts must therefore be kept in 
mind. 

Trifoliate, with long petiole, side-leaflets nearly sessile, leaf- 
lets entire or irregularly lobed Rhus Radicans. 

Outline round or subcordate, petiolate, 5 to 10 cm. in diam- 
eter, 3 to 5 parted, the lobes deeply incised and wedge- 
shaped Aconiti Folia. 

Large, broad leaves, with hollow petiole, twice or thrice de- 
compound Oonii Folia. 

Long-petioled, bi- or tri-pinnately decompound; lobelets en- 
tire, spatulate, somewhat fleshy Ruta. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Rhus Radicans 



377 



N. Poison Ivy, Poison Oak. Formerly used under the names 
Rhus Toxicodendron, or Toxicodendron. — 0. The leaves of Rhus 
radicans; Anacardiacea?. — H. North America. — D. The figure 
shows the shape, but is much reduced in size ; with long petiole, 
trifoliate, the end-leaflet stalked, the side-leaflets sessile or nearly 
so, leaflets 7 to 12 cm. long and up to 10 cm. broad, ovate or oval, 




Fig. 321. 

apex pointed; base rounded or wedge-shaped, margin entire or 
with a few coarse teeth or lobes, the upper surface smooth, the 
lower hairy ; no odor, taste acrid and astringent. — C. Toxicoden- 
dric acid (volatile), tannin, etc. By many the irritant principle 
is said to be a fixed oil ; this seems to be incompatible with the fact 
that some with specially sensitive skins are poisoned without 
coming into actual contact with the leaves, thus suggesting the 
volatile principle to be the poisoning agent. — U. Irritant and 



378 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



narcotic ; said to have been of benefit in paralysis, chronic rheu- 
matism, etc. Dose: 0.05 to 0.25 gram, best in form of tincture. 

Caution: The fresh leaves contain an acrid juice, so that when 
the leaves are touched intense irritation, blisters, or even sup- 
puration may result. The dried leaves, as generally used for 
medicinal purposes, are considered inert by many. 

Aconiti Folia 

N. Aconite Leaves, Monkshood Leaves. — 0. The leaves of Aco- 
nitum Napellus; Ranunculacece. — H. Northern temperate zone. — 




Fig. 322. 



D. The illustration gives a good idea of the shape of this leaf; it 
is one-half natural size. In outline the leaf is round or broadly 
subcordate, with petiole, palmately three to five-lobed (when 
three-lobed, the lateral lobes are usually so deeply incised as to 
make the leaf appear five-lobed), the lobes deeply incised, with 
the segments lanceolate to wedge-shaped ; brownish-green ; odor 
faint, taste acrid, bitter, producing a numbing or tingling sensa- 
tion in the mouth.— C. Aconitine. — U. Sedative and motor de- 
pressant, in large doses narcotic poison. Similar to Aconite root, 
but weaker and more variable in strength, so that the prepara- 
tions of the root ought to be preferred. Dose: 0.05 to 0.20 gram, 
best in tincture or fluid extract. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



379 



Conii Folia 

N. Conium Leaves, Hemlock Leaves. — 0. The leaves of Conium 
maculatum; Umbelliferce. — H. Northern temperate zone. — D. The 
shape is well shown in the drawing; the petioles are hollow and 
sheathing around the stem; the leaves are up to 30 cm. long, in 
outline round, ovate or triangularly ovate acuminate, ternately 
decompound, the pinnae deeply incised, with the teeth ending in 
whitish points, smooth upper surface dull bluish-green, lower 
surface lighter-colored and somewhat glossy ; odor and taste dis- 




Fig. 323. 



agreeably nauseous. The illustration shows the leaf one-third 
natural size and a lobelet natural size. — C. A volatile alka- 
loid coniine, volatile oil, etc, — U. Sedative narcotic, especially 
of use in the wakefulness of the insane ; also frequently added to 
purgatives to prevent griping. Dose : 0.2 to 0.5 gram, best in form 
of fluid extract, 

This drug is very hygroscopic and therefore liable to become 
mouldy. It should be kept in a thoroughly dry place; the fresh 
color is apt to change to yellowish-brown or dirty brown when 
exposed to moist atmosphere. 



380 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



The leaves are so variable in strength that the preparations of 
the fruit should always be preferred; even the latter are very 
variable in action in different lots, so that great caution should 
be exercised when prescribing this drug. 

In over-doses conium is a narcotic poison, killing by paralysis 
of the respiratory muscles; antidotal treatment, therefore, re- 
sembles that for opium poisoning, emetics, stimulants (alcohol, 
coffee, mix vomica), enforced exercise, hot applications and elec- 
tricity. 

Ruta 

N. Rue, Garden Rue. — 0. The leaves of Ruta graveolens; Ruta- 
cece. — H. Southern Europe. — D. The illustration shows the shape 




Fig. 324. 



of the leaf in natural size ; the leaves are somewhat fleshy, twice or 
thrice pinnatind, the lobelets about 6 to 12 mm. long, somewhat 
spatulate or obovate, slightly crenate near the apex, smooth, 
grayish- green, pellucid-punctate; odor aromatic, balsamic; taste 
bitter and acrid. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — U. Stimulant car- 
minative and anthelmintic. In large doses emmenagogue, for which 
purpose this drug is probably most frequently employed. Dose: 
0.5 to 2 grams in infusion. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



381 



FLOWERS 

The flower is an altered leaf bud and contains the sexnal organs 
which are necessary to produce seed. In pharmacognosy, how- 
ever, the term "flowers" has a wider meaning, since it includes 
whole inflorescences, flower-buds, flowers, and parts of flowers. 
Inflorescence signifies the mode of the arrangement of flowers on 
the plant axis, and in pharmacognosy is used especially in the 
sense of signifying the peculiar flower-clusters, as racemes, heads, 
umbels, cymes, etc. ; the meaning of these terms is supposed to have 
been learned from some book on botany. 

By the words simple or single flower, any flower is meant that 
is not a compound flower; it is therefore not meant in the sense of a 
solitary or axillary flower, but one, a single one, whether it grew 
singly or solitar}^, or whether it was gathered from a cluster ; in the 
trade it occurs separate from all other flowers or from any pedun- 
cle or axis on which it may have grown. 

A compound flower is a cluster of flowers, the inflorescence of a 
plant of the class Composite; such an inflorescence consists of nu- 
merous small flowers gathered into a head which is surrounded by 
an encircling cluster of leaves which resemble a calyx and which 
constitute the involucre ; the end of the stem is broadened into the 
receptacle or disc on which are situated the individual flowers, the 
whole cluster looking like one flower, wherefore it is called a com- 
pound flower; as in the sunflower, etc. 

Flowers are divided into the following groups: 

{Racemose or cymose LI 
Compound.. J Unopened LII 

[Opened LIII 

Whole J Unopened LIV 

' [Opened LV 

Parts jCorallas LVI 

[Stigmas LVII 



Flowers . 



Whole inflorescences 



Simple flowers, 



GROUP LI 

Eacemose or Cymose Inflorescences 
The nature of racemose and cymose inflorescences is supposed to 
have been learned from some book on botany, but so far as phar- 
macognosy is concerned, or rather, as far as the method of phar- 



382 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

macognosy here employed is concerned, we might group inflores- 
cences merely as ' ' compound ' ' and ' ' not compound ; ' ' perhaps it 
might be better to say here, ' ' inflorescences of simple flowers ' ' and 
"inflorescences of compound flowers." This group comprises the 
"not compound" inflorescences. By inflorescence we mean those 
parts Of plants which bear the flowers without the ordinary foliage 
portions being attached ; if leafy parts are included regularly with 
a drug of this general character, it would be a "flowering top," 
and belong in Group IX. 

The umbels of dill, anise, fennel, caraway, parsley, celery, etc., 
with fruits instead of flowers are to be obtained in the markets 
as "sweet herbs," for culinary purposes; while at first glance 
they might be considered to belong here, the fact that they are 
mature fruits places them elsewhere, and moreover, they do not 
occur thus in the wholesale drug trade, but are obtained from 
farmers at the markets or are home-grown. 

Large panicles in bundles, rolls or compressed clusters; 

reddish-brown Cusso. 

Bundles of one-sided racemes with about eight or nine 

bell-shaped flowers; scape about 15 cm. long Convallariae Flores. 

Heads of small, reddish, papilionaceous flowers, with 

foliage leaves at base Trifolium. 

Pale yellowish-green bracts with cymes of three to nine 

flowers Tilia. 

Large corymbose cymes of yellowish color Sambucus. 

Cusso 

N. Cusso, Cousso, Kousso, Brayera. The word "Kusso" in its 
various spellings is indeclinable and neuter. — 0. The female in- 
florescence of Hagenia Abyssinica; Rosacece. — H. Abyssinia, 
Africa. — D. Fig. 325 shows a bundle wrapped with the bast of 
some plant, but many of the bundles of the drug are not so 
wrapped ; the illustration is about three-tenths natural size. The 
flowers are also figured (Fig. 326) ; a, the section of a flower with 
fruit partly matured ; ~b, pistil ; c, section of female flower ; d, male 
flower, abortive pistils ; e, female flower, abortive stamens and an- 
thers ; /, flower-bud of male flower ; all much enlarged. The bun- 
dles, rolls or compressed clusters consist of panicles about 25 to 40 
cm. long, with a sheathing bract at the base of each branch; the 
drug should consist of tolerably well preserved clusters without 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



383 



the coarse stems ; not of crushed flowers with pieces of the stem ; 
the two roundish bracts at the base of each (female) flower and 
the five outer, obovate sepals are reddish-brown and- membranous ; 
the calyx is cup-shaped and contains two carpels, free from each 
other, and often partly developed into immature nut-like fruits; 
the odor, though faint, reminds of elder flowers, and the taste is 
slight at first, but afterwards becomes bitter and somewhat acrid. — 
C. Kosin about 3 per cent, tannin about 24 per cent, and resin 
about 6 per cent. — U. Anthelmintic, taenicide; not very reliable 
in action. Dose: 10 to 25 grams, in powder or electuary; or 
the powder may be made into an infusion with warm water and 
swallowed without straining. 




Fig. 325. 




Fig. 326. 



The female inflorescence is in bundles of distinctly reddish tint 
and is known in the trade as "red kousso;" it is the best kind. 
The bundles of male inflorescence are of a greenish or greenish- 
brow^n color and are called ' ' brown kousso ' ' in the trade ; they 
are inferior. The male flowers are frequently added to the female 
flowers as an adulteration, especially when the drug occurs loose or 
not in bundles. 

Convallariae Flores 

N. Lily of the Valley Flowers, Convallaria Flowers. — 0. The 
inflorescence of Convallaria majalis; Liliacece. — H. Europe, North- 



384 



HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 



ern Asia and America; generally cultivated by florists. — D. The 
flowers occur in the drug trade tied up in bundles just as the 
gardeners sell the fresh flowers; such bundles are about 2 cm. 
thick at the lower end, and rather loose or not much compressed 
at the flowering ends. The one-sided nodding raceme is about 




Fig. 327. 

15 cm. long and consists of an angular scape, beset with about 
eight or nine small bell-shaped flowers, white when fresh, but 
yellowish-brown in the dried drug. Fig. 327 shows the withered 
raceme of a herbarium specimen in natural size, and one fresh 
flower, also natural size. — C. Convallarin and Convallamarin. — U. 
Similar to those of the rhizome, already described under Group 
XXII, and which is generally preferred as a drug; heart stimu- 
lant. Dose: 1 to 2.5 grams, best in form of fluid extract or 
infusion. 

Trifolium 

N. Red Clover, Red Clover Tops. — 0. The flower-heads of Tri- 
folium pratense; Papilionacece. — H. Cultivated. — D. Heads of flow- 




Fig. 328. 



ers, immediately below which there are two foliage leaves, the 
stipules of which are winged and enclose the base of the head; 
the leaves are three-lobed, or frequently one or both of the lower 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 385 

lobes are absent in one or both of the leaves, so that they may 
appear to be two-lobed or simple ; the head contains from 50 to 
150 flowers on a conical rhachis; the flowers are tubular, papil- 
ionaceous, purplish-red when fresh, but often brownish-red in 
the dried drug, fragrant, sweetish. Fig. 328 shows the inflores- 
cence natural size. — C. Cumarin, etc. — U. Red Clover has been 
recommended as a remedy for whooping cough; probably of lit- 
tle value. Dose: 5 to 10 grams, in infusion or fluid extract. 

Tilia 

N. Linden Flowers. — 0. and H. The whole inflorescence, with 
the bract properly belonging to it, of several varieties of Tilia, 
of which T. Americana and T. heterophylla are American varieties 




Fig. 329. 

and T. ulmifolia, T. Europea, T. vulgaris, T. par vi folia, and T. 
platyphylla are European, although T. ulmifolia is also cultivated 
in the United States ; Tiliacece. Most of the drug comes from 
Germany. — D. Fig. 329 shows the inflorescence of T. ulmifolia 
in natural size; the inflorescences of other varieties are similar 
except that the number of flowers may be different. Linden 
flowers occur in 3 to 9-flowered racemes, the common stem 
of which springs from the middle of a bract which is from 5 to 
10 cm. long ; the flowers are yellowish-white and the thin, mem- 
branous, netted-veined bracts are pale green; in the dried state, 
as drug, the flowers are yellowish, but the bracts should remain 
greenish and not be brownish; odor pleasant but feeble; taste 
sweetish. — C. Traces of volatile oil and aromatic resin, mucilage, 



386 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

etc. — U. Diaphoretic, in copious draughts of hot infusion; it is 
probable that the hot water has at least as much to do with the 
action of these draughts as the linden flowers. Dose: 2 to 5 
grams, in infusion. 

The whole inflorescence of Sambucus or Elder Flowers came 
into trade formerly, and does so occasionally now ; large, corym- 
bose cymes, much branched, often up to 25 cm. across the flat- 
tened top, but generally much broken; yellowish. Now the pe- 
duncles and pedicels of the inflorescence are usually separated 
from the flowers and rejected, so that the flowers alone constitute 
the drug, for which reason this drug will be described under 
Group LV, opened single flowers. 

GROUP LII 

Unopened Compound Flower-Heads 

Only one drug of this group occurs in our trade, namely, the so- 
called ' ' Levant Wormseed ; " it resembles a seed, so that it is gen- 
erally called "wormseed," but a careful examination, especially 
if with a lens, will show the external scales of the involucre. 

Elongated, somewhat angular, scaly flower-heads, 2 to 3 mm. long, 

grayish-green ; unopened Santonica. 

Santonica 

N. Santonica, Levant Wormseed, Flores Cime, Semen Contra. — 
0. The unexpanded flower-heads of Artemisia paadflora (Arte- 
misia Cina); Composite.— H. Turkestan— D. Oblong-ovoid, gray- 
ish-green, somewhat glossy flower-heads, about 2 to 3 mm. long, 
covered with 12 to 18 imbricated glandular scales which en- 
close 3 to 5 rudimentary or undeveloped florets; odor strong, 
peculiar, aromatic and slightly camphoraceous ; taste bitter, 
aromatic, leaving a slightly cooling sensation in the mouth — 
C. Santoninum, volatile oil, etc.— U. Anthelmintic, especially for 
round worms or lumbrici. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, best in form of 
powder made into an electuary with syrup. 

A brownish color indicates that the drug has been exposed to 
light or is old, the probability being that in either case it has de- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



387 



teriorated. It should have a grayish-green color, not brownish- 
green, and the odor should be strong. 

In Fig. 330 a, b, c, d show the flower-heads of Artemisia Vahli- 
ana, whole, in longitudinal section, one scale and one floret ; e and 
/ show the flower-heads of A. pauciflora (A. maritima; A. Cina) 
whole, and one scale showing glands, which in the fresh drug are 
orange-colored, all much enlarged. 




Fig. 330. 

Authors differ in regard to the exact source of this drug, and 
it is probable that the plant may vary under various circum- 
stances, so that the drug may also vary somewhat according to 
soil, etc. Some authors claim that Santonica is derived from 
several varieties of Artemisia. 



GROUP LIII 

Expanded Compound Flower-Heads 

The nature of compound flower-heads was described on page 
381 ; the group we are now considering includes the expanded 
compound flower-heads. Occasionally, but rarely, the flowering 
tops of Matricaria are used instead of the flower-heads alone, 
and not infrequently the flower-heads alone of Tanacetum occur 
in the trade, instead of the flowering tops, which were already 
described in Group IX. 

In order to properly examine the drugs of this group, the 
flower-heads may be soaked in water when they will resume the 
shape and size of the freshly-flowering inflorescence, and the de- 
tails of their structure can then be more readily compared with 
the descriptions and illustrations. 



388 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Heads about 3 cm. broad, with scaly involucre, flat receptacle, 
about 15 to 20 yellow ray-florets and many disk-florets 
with pappus Arnicae Flores. 

Subglobular heads, about 2 cm. broad, with imbricate in- 
volucre, conical solid receptacle, numerous white ligulate 
florets and few disk-florets Anthemis. 

Heads about 2 cm. broad, with imbricate involucre, conical 
hollow receptacle, 12 to 18 white ray-florets and many 
deep-yellow disk-florets Matricaria. 

Heads depressed roundish, about 2.5 cm. broad, with imbri- 
cate involucre, convex receptacle, about 20 to 30 pinkish 
ray -florets and numerous yellow disk-florets Pyrethri Flores. 

Heads sub-globular, about 4 to 8 mm. broad, with imbricate 
involucre, convex receptacle, and numerous yellow tubu- 
lar florets Tanacetum. 

Arnicae Flores 

N. Arnica Flowers. — 0. The flower-heads of Arnica montana; 
Composites. — H. Europe and Northern Asia. — D. The flower-heads 
are roundish, about 2 to 3 cm. broad, with double rows of scales 
in hairy involucre, receptacle nearly flat, small and hairy, with 
15 to 20 bright yellow ray-florets and numerous disk-florets; the 




ray-florets are female, about 4 cm. long, with tubular part of 
corolla about 4 mm. long, from which the bifid stigma protrudes, 
the ligule about 4 to 5 mm. broad, 9-nerved and 3-toothed; the 
disk-florets are perfect (hermaphrodite), about 2 cm. long, with 
5-toothed tubular corolla from which the anther-tube and bifid 
stigma protrude ; in both ray and disk florets, the 4 mm. long 
ovary (or partially formed fruit, an achene) is surmounted with 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 389 

a hairy pappus ; odor feebly aromatic and taste bitter and acrid. — 
C. Volatile oil, arnicin (nature not determined), resin, tannin, 
etc. — U. Mainly used externally as a vulnerary lotion or dress- 
ing; sometimes used internally as a stimulant. Dose: 0.5 to 1 
gram, in tincture. 

Fig. 331 sIioavs the involucre, ray-floret, disk-floret and pappus 
hair all in natural size. The drug should be gathered before the 
fruit commences to develop, as the drug is apt afterwards to con- 
tain the larvas of an insect (Trypeta) in the involucre and the 
more plentiful pappus. The ray-florets should therefore be 
bright-yellow, not withered and brown, and the drug should not 
have a gray and hairy appearance from pappus. It is recom- 
mended by some authorities that the involucre should always be 
rejected, because that part of the drug is most apt to contain the 
insects which are the probable cause of the irritation or urticaria 
sometimes produced by preparations of this drug; this insect is 
said to contain a principle similar to cantharidin, and to be the 
cause of ' ' arnica erysipelas. ' ' 

Anthemis 

N. Anthemis, Chamomile, Roman Chamomile, English Chamo- 
mile. — 0. The flower-heads of Anthemis nooilis; Composite?. — H. 
Cultivated in Europe and in some localities of the United 
States. — D. Subglobular heads about 2 cm. broad, with imbricate 
involucre, chaffy, conical, solid receptacle and numerous ray-florets 
with white strap-shaped, 3-toothed corolla, and but few yellow, 
tubular disk-florets; odor rather agreeably aromatic, taste bitter 
aromatic. — C. Volatile oil, bitter principle, etc. — U. Stimulant 
tonic and carminative; in large doses emetic and emmena- 
gogue (?). Mostly used as a diaphoretic, in copious draughts of 
hot, but weak infusion, while the patient is covered up in bed; 
the diaphoretic effect is mainly due to the hot water, though 
aided by the general relaxation produced by the nauseating ef- 
fect of the chamomile. -Dose: 1 to 5 grams, best in infusion as 
a tea. 

In the wild- growing variety of this plant the flower-heads have 
only about fifteen ray-florets and many disk-florets; through cul- 
tivation the flower-head has become "double," that is, most of 



390 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



the disk-florets have become changed to ray-florets ; the culti- 
vated variety is less disagreeable to the taste than the wild- 
growing. 

Fig. 332 shows a fresh flower-head of the cultivated variety in 
natural size, but in the drug the ligules are shrunken and doubled 
over the head so that it looks much smaller; the vertical section 
of the single or wild flower-head, one ray and one disk floret, 
stigma and fruit are shown considerably enlarged. 

Cotula,, the flower-heads or the flowering tops of Anthemis 
Cotula, Mayweed, Wild Chamomile or Dog Chamomile (a common 




Fig. 332. 

weed), are used for the same purposes as Anthemis nobilis; the 
taste and odor of Cotula are so disagreeable, however, that it is not a 
popular drug and is used only when other chamomile cannot be 
had. The flower-heads of Anthemis Cotula are single, not double. 



Matricaria 

N. Chamomile, German Chamomile, Wild Chamomile; this is 
the drug that is wanted when Germans ask for "chamomile." — 
0. The flower-heads (or sometimes the flowering tops) of Matri- 
caria Chamomilla; Composite. — H. Europe. — D. Heads about 2 
cm. broad, with flat imbricate involucre, conical, hollow, naked 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



391 



receptacle, 12 to 15 female ray-florets about 8 mm. long, with 
white ligulate, 3-toothed corolla, and numerous perfect (herma- 
phrodite) tubular disk-florets Avith yellow, 5-toothed corolla; 
odor peculiar, somewhat disagreeable and nauseous, taste bitter 
aromatic. — C. Minute quantity of volatile oil, bitter extractive, 
tannin, etc. — U. Same as those of the previous drug, Anthemis. 
Owing to the hollow receptacle the flower-heads shrink much 
on drying and are easily crumbled; a good drug should have 
whole flower-heads with fresh, bright colors and strong charac- 
teristic odor and taste. The hollow receptacle distinguishes this 
drug from any possible adulteration. 




Fig. 333. 



Fig. 333 shows a portion of the flowering top with three flower- 
heads in natural size (fresh, a,) ; the involucre with receptacle 
(d), vertical section of same (e), ray-floret (b) and disk-floret (c) 
all enlarged. 

The flower-heads of several varieties of Pyrethrum (Chrysan- 
themum) are imported, but they reach the retail pharmacist only 
in the shape of "Persian Insect Powder." These flower-heads 
resemble in shape those of Anthemis, but the involucres are 
usually marked with red to brown markings, and the ray-florets 
are pinkish to reddish. The drug is of no particular interest in 
its whole condition to the pharmacist. 



392 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Tanacetum, the flowering tops (or occasionally the flower- 
heads) of Tanacetum vulgar e, has already been described and 
figured under Group IX, but as the drug sometimes consists 
of the flower-heads alone it is also mentioned here. 



GROUP LIV 

Unopened Single Flowers 

Only two drugs consisting of unexpanded buds (Latin: Alabas- 
tri) of single flowers are of sufficient importance to need men- 
tion here: 

^ubcylindrical calyx tube with, four teeth, terminated by a 
corolla forming a globular head; about 15 mm. long; 
brown Caryophyllus. 

Ovoid buds, about 12 to 15 mm. long, with 5-toothed calyx; 

pale brownish-yellow. Aurantii Flores. 

Caryophyllus 

N. Cloves. — 0. The unopened flower-buds (unexpanded flow- 
ers) of Eugenia aromatica; Myrtacece. — H. Molucca Islands; cul- 
tivated in tropical regions of the Eastern continent. — D. About 
15 to 18 mm. long and 4 to 5 mm. thick through thickest part; 
dark brown, with a subcylindrical calyx tube which at its upper 
end is divided into four spreading notches or sepals supporting 
four petals which overlap each other and form a globular head 
(bud) covering numerous curved stamens and one style; the 
calyx tube contains the ovaries in its upper part and throughout 
its entire length contains near its outer surface many small inter- 
cellular gland-spaces or oil-glands; the odor is strongly aromatic 
and the taste pungent and spicy. — C. The only constituent of 
value is the volatile oil, which is so abundant (15 to 20 per cent) 
that it exudes simply on pressure of the surface of the clove 
with the finger-nail. — U. Spice and condiment. Stimulant, car- 
minative and stomachic. Dose: 1 to 2 grams in infusion. 

Fig. 334 shows a whole clove (a) and a fruit (b) in natural 
size; also a clove with petals removed (c) and a vertical section of 
a clove (d), both enlarged. 

The unripe fruits of the clove tree come into the trade under the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



393 



name of "mother-cloves" or "anthophylli;" they are much less 
aromatic than cloves, and are mainly used to adulterate the lat- 
ter when powdered. 

Cloves, to be good, must be plump, heavy, of rich brown color, 
strong spicy odor and pungent aromatic taste ; they should be 




Fig. 334. 

kept in well-closed vessels. Occasionally cloves are mixed with 
some from which the volatile oil has been abstracted by distilla- 
tion; such cloves are much shrunken, appear to be moist, are 
dark-colored or almost black and the heads formed by the petals 
are generally broken or missing; they are, of course, much 
weaker in odor and taste. 



Aurantii Flores 

N. Orange Flowers; Flores Naphce. — 0. The unopened flower- 
buds (unexpanded flowers) of Citrus vulgaris and C. Aurantium; 
Rirfacece (Aurantiacece). — H. Cultivated in all subtropical coun- 
tries. — D. About 15 mm. long without the flower-stalk which is 
often present; the calyx is cup-shaped, small and 5-iiotched and 
incloses the base of the corolla which consists of five over-lapping 
pale brownish-yellow petals forming an ovoid head (bud) cover- 
ing numerous polyadelphous stamens inserted on a disk around a 
pistil with a globular ovary and stigma; odor fragrant and taste 
aromatic bitter. — C. Volatile oil (oil of neroli) and bitter ex- 
tractive. — TJ. Slightly stimulant and antispasmodic (?), but not 
much used. 



394 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Fig. 335 shows the whole bud and the expanded flower in 
natural size ; also the bud with petals removed, showing stamens 
surrounding the pistil, and the same with the stamens removed, 
the latter two illustrations enlarged. 

The fresh flowers are used for making the distilled water of 




Fig. 335. 



orange flowers; sometimes the fresh flowers are salted down in 
jars with about one-third of their weight of salt, and distilled 
water may be made from these. The dried flowers which consti- 
tute the drug described above are practically worthless ; the dried 
flowers should be rejected if they are not strongly fragrant or if 
they are of a decidedly brown color. 



GROUP LV 



Opened Single Flowers 

Under this group we find single simple flowers as well as single 
florets from compound flowers ; the characteristic being that the 
flowers are entire. When a drug consists only of parts of flowers 
it belongs in Group LVI or LVII. Flowers can best be examined 
by first soaking in water, by which they to a certain extent 
resume their fresh shape and allow dissecting, to demonstrate 
botanical details. 

Simple Floiuers: 
Small shriveled, pale brownish-yellow, roundish grains. ... Sambucus. 
Small two-lipped flowers with bluish-gray calyx and violet- 
blue corolla Lavandula. 

Light grayish-green, double calyx, felty with stellate hairs; 

petals purplish-black Althseae Flores. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 395 

Similar to last, somewhat smaller, and the corolla bluish- 
purple in dry drug Malvae Flores. 

Florets from Compound Flowers: 

Yellow, strap-shaped, fertile (female), ray-florets Calendula. 

Deep-red, thin tubular, 5-lobed corolla, with projecting 

anther tube and style Oarthamus. 

Neuter (sexless) florets, with tubular corolla ending in 7- 

parted blue limb Cyani Flores. 

Calyx grayish-green, felty, 5-parted; corolla 5-lobed, wheel- 
shaped, yellow Verbasci Flores. 

Sambucus 

N. Elder Flowers. — 0. The flowers of Sambucus Canadensis 
and 8. nigra; Caprifoliacece. — H. 8. nigra is preferred in Europe 
and England because it grows there, and S. Canadensis is pre- 
ferred in America because it is indigenous here ; there is no need 




to distinguish between the two kinds as they are practically alike 
in appearance and in medicinal value. — D. In the dried drug the 
flowers are shriveled into roundish grains or balls scarcely more 
than iy 2 to 2 mm. in diameter, pale brownish-yellow, with a pe- 
culiar fragrant odor and a sweetish, mucilaginous aromatic and 
finally somewhat acrid taste. By soaking in water the flowers 
may be recognized as such and can be more readily examined. 
The fresh flowers are about 5 mm. broad, calyx superior and 
minutely 5-toothed, corolla 5-lobed, wheel-shaped, cream-colored 
or white, with five extrorse stamens, pistil with three roundish 
stigmas; Fig. 336 shows upper surface of flower enlarged (a), un- 
der surface of flower enlarged (b), from side, corolla and stamens 
removed (c), and flower in natural size (d). — 0. Very small quan- 
tity of volatile oil, resin, tannin, etc. — U. Stimulant diaphoretic. 
Dose: 2 to 4 grams, best in infusion. 



396 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Lavandula 



N. Lavender, Lavender Flowers. — 0. The flowers of Lavandula 
vera; Labiatce. — H. Cultivated in Europe and America. — D. Small 
blue flowers, about 12 mm. long, calyx tubular, 5-toothed, the 
tooth on the back of the flower larger than the others and round- 
ish, calyx bluish-gray, hairy, the corolla violet-blue, labiate, the 
upper lip obcordate, larger and 2-lobed, the lower lip smaller and 




3-lobed, hairy-glandular on outer surface, four stamens on inside 
of tube ; fragrant odor and aromatic, camphoraceous and bitter- 
ish taste. Fig. 337 shows a flower in natural size (a), same en- 
larged, front (b) and back (c). — C. One to three per cent of 
volatile oil, resin, etc. — U. Stimulant carminative. Rarely used 
internally, except as a flavoring agent; the whole flowers are 
often used as sachet perfume. 

Althaeae Flores 

N. Flores Malvse Arboreag, Mallow Flowers, Hollyhock flowers; 
see Fig. 338. — 0. The flowers of Althcea rosea; Malvacem. — H. Cul- 
tivated; in cultivation the flowers are often double. — D. The 
flowers of this plant vary in color, white, yellow, rose, red, brown 
to purplish-red and purplish-black, but only the dark-colored 
flowers are gathered for the trade. Hollyhock flowers are 7 to 
10 cm. broad, calyx gray-felty with stellate hairs, double, the 
outer layer of sepals (also called involucre) 9-cleft, the inner layer 
5-cleft, corolla 5-lobed, the petals broadly obovate, notched at apex, 
united at base to the base of a column or tube formed by the union 
of the numerous filaments bearing many kidney-shaped anthers, 
and within which tube are the stigmas ; odor slight, taste sweetish 
mucilaginous and slightly astringent, The illustration shows the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



397 



upper surface of a flower, natural size; the column bearing an- 
thers is shown.- — C. Mucilage, tannin, etc. — U. Demulcent, emol- 
lient. Used as an ingredient of "species pectorales. " 

The infusion of the petals is rendered red by acids, green by 
alkalies. The petals are also brought into trade alone, as corol- 
las, and can be used as a rich and harmless coloring agent for 
artificial fruit syrups, etc. 

Malvse Flores, Mallow Flowers, slightly smaller than those 
from Althaea rosea, are obtained from Malva sylvestris, M. rotundi- 
folia, etc. The flowers of these plants are similar to the above, ex- 




Fig. 338. 

cept that the petals have a bluish-purple color when dry, as in the 
drug. European writers (Schleiden, Berg, etc.) include under the 
title "Flores Malvse Arbor eae" the flowers of Althcea rosea, A. of- 
ficinalis, Malva sylvestris, M. rotundifolia, M. neglect a f etc., so that 
it is probable that no accurate distinctions need be made in the 
drugs known in the trade as "flores althaeae" or "flores malvae." 
These flowers vary in size and color, and to a limited extent in 
other regards, but resemble the illustration closed enough for 
identification ; they all have the central column hollow stamen-tube 
with numerous anthers. 



398 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



They are all used for the same purposes as the Flores Althaeae 
described above. 

Calendula 

N. Calendula Flowers, Marigold Flowers.— 0. The ray-florets 
of Calendula officinalis; Composite^. — H. Cultivated everywhere. — 
D. Occasionally the flowering tops are used. The plant has a 
rough, angular stem, alternate, thick, hairy, spatulate leaves; 
flower-heads about 5 cm. broad, with conspicuous bright orange- 
yellow florets. Generally, however, only the ray-florets are 
gathered. The ray-florets are fertile (female), have a slightly 
curved ovary and a ligulate corolla, bright orange-yellow, up to 




Fig. 339. 

2.5 cm. long and 3 mm, wide, 3-toothed and delicately striate longi- 
tudinally, the bifid style projecting from the short tube of the 
corolla; there is no pappus, by which characteristic calendula 
flowers may be readily distinguished from arnica flowers or other 
similar flowers. Fig. 339 shows a ray-floret in natural size, and 
enlarged. — C. An amorphous bitter principle, traces of volatile 
oil, yellow coloring principle, etc. — U. Reputed to possess tonic, 
antispasmodic, diaphoretic and emmenagogue properties. Used 
also as a vulnerary externally, for similar purposes as arnica, to 
which drug it is probably superior, because less apt to be infested 
with insects and therefore less likely to produce the trouble which 
is usually called ' ' arnica urticaria " or " arnica erysipelas. ' ' Dose : 
0.5 to 1 gram in infusion. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



399 



Carthamus 

N. Safflower, American Saffron. — 0. The florets of Carthamus 
tinctorius; Composite. — H. Cultivated in India, the Levant and 
Egypt, Asia, Europe and America. — D. Fig. 340 shows a floret in 
natural size; the compound flower-heads are large and the florets 
are yellow, but after fertilization when the corollas commence to 
wither, the florets change to a deep orange-red color ; it is at this 
time that the florets are gathered by plucking from the flower- 
heads. The floret consists of a very thin cylindrical tube, about 
2.5 cm. long, ending in a 5-cleft limb, each lobe of which is about 
4 to 6 mm. long; from this tube projects the syngeuesious anther- 




Fig. 340. 



tube, yellow, and also about 4 to 6 mm. long, and through the 
latter the stigma protrudes another 6 mm., so that the total 
length of the floret is about 40 mm., but that of the corolla alone 
only about 2.5 cm.; odor feeble, peculiar, taste insipid, faintly 
bitterish. — C. Carthamin, about 40 per cent yellow coloring prin- 
ciple, etc. — U. Diaphoretic in infusion. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. 
Mainly used as a coloring agent, or as a cheap substitute for 
genuine saffron; this drug is sometimes called "false saffron." 
The Oriental or Indian varieties of this drug are most highly 
esteemed and in the best grades of this drug the corolla was 
picked from the ovary in the gathering, so that the ' ovary is 
missing; see next group. 



400 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Cyani Flores 

N. Only used by German pharmacists, to whom it is known as 
' ' Korn-Blume ' ' or corn-flower. — 0. The ray-floret of Centaurea 
Cyanus; Compositce. — H. A common weed in European grain 
("Korn") fields. — D. The ray-florets (Fig. 341) are neuter or 
sexless, about 3 cm. long, corolla consisting of a thin tube ex- 
panding into a cup-shaped, irregularly 7-cleft limb, of a blue 
color. See illustration, natural size. The flowers must be dried 
quickly and kept in a dry and dark place as they otherwise 
bleach readily. — C. Mucilage, etc. — U. German pharmacists are 
fond of giving a peculiar mottled appearance to their prepara- 
tions of "species pectorales" and they use for this purpose such 
inert substances as possess pronounced bright colors: Flores 




Fig. 341. 

Cyani, flores malvce, flores verbasci, etc. Flores Cyani have no 
medicinal virtues. 

Verbasci Flores, Mullein Flowers, are sometimes gathered en- 
tire, but usually the drug consists of the corollas alone, where- 
fore the description of this drug is to be found in the next group. 

GROUP LVI 

COLOLLAS 

This group includes only the corollas, either entire as in Ver- 
basci Flores, or the separate petals (Latin: Petala) as in Rosa cen- 
tifolia. Flores Cyani, consisting of neuter florets, have the ap- 
pearance of corollas only, although they are really entire florets ; 
they may therefore be looked for here and are mentioned for this 
reason in this group. Safflower, already mentioned in the last 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 401 

group, is sometimes gathered by pinching off the corolla, reject- 
ing the ovary, so that the drug does not consist of entire flowers 
but only of parts of flowers; however, the corolla with the 
stamens and style projecting look so much like an entire flower, 
that the drug would still probably be looked for in the previous 
group. Mullein flowers usually consist only of the corolla with 
inclosed adherent stamens; they would therefore probably be 
looked for here, but because the whole flowers are sometimes 
found in the trade, they are also mentioned under Group LV. 

Roundish-obovate or obcordate petals of pinkish color and 

fragrant odor Rosa Centif olia. 

Deep purplish-red cones, about 2.5 cm. long, consisting of 

imbricated roundish petals Rosa Gallica. 

Five-lobed, wheel-shaped, hairy, yellow corolla, with five 

coherent anthers enclosed Verbasci Flores. 

Nearly round, thin, dark-red petals, about 5 cm. broad, 

with a blue-black spot at the base Rhceadis Flores. 

Five obovate-cuneate, deep-red to purplish-black petals, each 

about 2.5 to 4 cm. long, united at the base Athaeae Flores. 

Similar to last, but smaller and bluish-purple Malvae Flores. 

Deep-red, thin tubular, 5-lobed corolla, with projecting an- 
ther tube and style Carthamus. 

Neuter (sexless) florets, with tubular corolla ending in 7- 

parted blue limb Cyani Flores. 

Rosa Centifolia 

N. Pale Rose, Pale Rose Leaves, Rose Leaves. — 0. The petals 
of Rosa centifolia; Rosacem. — H. Western Asia, but now cultivated 




Fig. 342. 

everywhere. — D. Cultivated roses are double flowers having many 
petals ; the. pale-red petals of the variety under consideration are 
ovate, roundish, broader than long, notched at apex so as 



402 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

to appear almost obcordate, the upper margin often recurved; 
Fig. 342 shows one of the larger outer petals as it appears 
when fresh; if carefully dried the petals retain their shapes 
and fresh color fairly well, but exposure to light is apt to change 
the delicate pink color to a pale brownish-yellow; odor fragrant, 
taste slightly astringent. — C. Traces of volatile oil, tannin, etc. — 
U. For flavoring. Sometimes preserved undried with one-half of 
its weight of salt by packing tightly in jars; these leaves may 
then be used for making rose water by distillation, but the latter 
can be bought so much better and more economically that prob- 
ably very few pharmacists would take the trouble to make their 
rose water from salted leaves. 

Rosa Gallica 

N. Red Rose. — 0. The petals of the unopened buds of Rosa Gal- 
lica; Rosacea?. — H. Southern and middle Europe, eastward to Cau- 




Fig. 343. 

casia ; now cultivated everywhere. — D. The petals are removed 
from the unexpanded bud without separating them, and then 
quickly dried, so that the drug consists of small cones, varying 
somewhat in size, each cone consisting of numerous imbricated, 
roundish, notched, deep-purplish-red petals (see Fig. 343) ; the 
yellow claws or bases of the petals should be cut away when the 
drug is gathered, but are frequently allowed to remain; odor 
fragrant, taste slightly astringent. — C. Traces of volatile oil, 
tannin, etc. — U. Mainly for flavoring. 

Verbasci Flores 

N. Mullein Flowers. — 0. and H. The corollas (with stamens), 
or more rarely the entire flowers of several varieties of Verbas- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



403 



cum; the common mullein of America is Verbascum thapsus; Scro- 
phulariacece. The two varieties V. thapsiforme and V. phlomoides 
are common weeds in Europe, where V. thapsus also occurs. All 
three varieties furnish the drug, although V. thapsiforme has the 
largest flower and therefore furnishes the showiest drug. — D. Fig. 
344 shows the corolla of V. thapsiforme laid open to show the sta- 
mens. The hairy 5-lobed calyx is generally absent in the drug; 
the corolla is rotate or wheel-shaped, 2 to 4 cm. broad, bright 
golden yellow, with five roundish lobes, and with five stamens 
inserted in the tube of the corolla, three of which are shorter 
and woolly and two longer and naked; odor faintly aromatic 
and taste sweetish mucilaginous. The corollas of the American 
variety, V. thapsus, are similar but smaller, being only about 15 




Fig. 344. 

mm. in diameter. — C. Trace of volatile oil, a fatty substance, mu- 
cilage, etc. — U. Demulcent; used mainly as a showily colored 
ingredient of pectoral teas. 

Flores Rhoeadis 



N. Poppy Flowers. — 0. The petals of Papaver Rhoeas; Papave- 
racece. — H. A European annual, but generally cultivated as a 
showy garden flower. — D. The entire flower is shown in Fig. 345 
in natural size; the petals are very thin and delicate, broadly 
oval, broader than long, dark-red, with a blue-black spot at the 
base where they are inserted on the receptacle (hidden in the 
flower by the stamens and pistil); odor faintly narcotic, taste 



404 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



bitterish mucilaginous. In the drug the petals are much 
shrunken.— C. A deep-red coloring principle, rhoeadic acid, solu- 




Fig. 345. 

ble in water and in dilute alcohol, etc. — U. Coloring agent ; used 
like Flores Malvae. 

For description of Flores Althsese, Flores Malvse, Carthamus 
and Flores Cyani, see previous group. 



GROUP LVII 

Stigmas 

The group includes two drugs only; these drugs consist of the 
styles and stigmas of the plants from which they are derived, the 
stigmas being the important part in Crocus and the styles in Zea. 
The group is called ' ' Sexual Organs ' ' by some authors, but this is 
evidently wrong because only parts, and not even the essential 
parts, of only the female organs are present ; and moreover, there 
would be just as much reason to Call Flores Verbasci "Corollas 
with Sexual Parts" as to call these drugs "Sexual Parts." The 
group has also been called "Styles with Stigmas," but as in the 
Latin titles for these drugs, as used in different works, the word 
"Stigmata" has so long been used it is deemed inadvisable to 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



405 



change the custom, and this word is therefore preferred as the 
most appropriate title for this group of drugs. 

Separate stigmas, or three attached to a style, linear tubular, about . 

3 cm. long, deep orange-brown with reddish tinge Crocus. 

Tufts of soft, silky, thread-like, yellowish hairs, about 15 cm. long; 
the ends of the tufts often dried or shriveled together and dark 
brown Zea. 

Crocus 

N. Saffron, Spanish Saffron, True Saffron. — 0. The stigmas of 
Crocus sativus; Iridacece. — H. Cultivated in Asia Minor and in 
Southern Europe; most of the saffron sold in this country is 




Fig. 346. 

from Spain and France. — D. The illustration shows the stigmas 
in natural size, with a short piece of the style attached, but in the 
drug they are crumpled and shrunken ; also, on the left, the end 
enlarged and on the right a portion of the margin, very much 
magnified. To examine the drug, drop a few shreds on w T arm 
water, when it will regain its fresh form. The stigmas are 
usually gathered so that a small portion of the style remains at- 
tached, and the three stigmas of a flower thereby remain at- 
tached as in Fig. 346; but occasionally they are pinched off 
shorter and are then single stigmas; the drug should contain very 
little of the styles. The stigma is about 3 cm. long, flattish-tubu- 
lar, almost thread-like where it joins the style, broader and split 
on the inner side of the free end, which is notched and shows 
papillose margin under a lens; a good grade of saffron is of 



406 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

a rich orange-brown color with reddish tinge, somewhat deeper 
at the end and lighter toward the style, flexible and soft, not dry 
and hard, with a peculiar strong odor and an aromatic bitterish 
taste, and when chewed it stains the saliva a deep golden yel- 
low. — C. Coloring matter, gum, wax, etc. — U. Seldom employed 
otherwise than as a coloring agent. It is mildly diaphoretic, 
slightly sedative and antispasmodic. Dose: 0.3 to 2 grams, in in- 
fusion or tincture. 

The genuine drug is necessarily very high-priced as the stig- 
mas from 130,000 flowers must be picked to make one kilo of the 
drug; owing to this high price the drug is often adulterated, or 
cheaper substances bearing more or less resemblance to it are 
used as substitutes or admixtures. 

The ray-florets of Calendula, flowers of Carthamus, petals of 
pomegranate or other deep-red flowers cut in shreds, shreds of 
smoked or dried beef, and other similar substances are readily 
distinguished when the suspected drug is placed on warm water, 
which causes the different parts to spread out and show their 
shapes. 

The stigmas of some other varieties of Crocus are occasionally 
added; they are smaller, more flaring and more deeply notched 
at the upper ends, and have a yellowish color. 

A deceptive adulteration is the addition of true saffron from 
which the coloring matter has been extracted by maceration; the 
exhausted stigmas have a pale and uniform yellowish color, and 
the whole drug has a less rich and bright appearance. 

It is sometimes loaded with mineral matters to increase the 
weight; when soaked in water this pulverulent substance is 
deposited. 

Although saffron feels greasy to the touch, it does not con- 
tain fixed oil. It should not leave a greasy spot when pressed 
between two thicknesses of filter-paper. 

On drying saffron it should not lose more than fourteen per 
cent of moisture (showing absence of water fraudulently added) 
and when thus dried it should not leave more than 7.5 to eight per 
cent ash on burning (absence of foreign mineral substances). 

Saffron bleaches in the light and loses its odor when exposed to 
the air ; it should therefore be kept in well-closed opaque containers, 
or in a dark closet, in a cool place. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



407 



Zea 

N. Corn-silk. — 0. The styles and stigmas of Zea Mays; Gram- 
inacece. — H. Indigenous to the tropical parts of America, but now 
cultivated in all tropical and sub-tropical parts of America and 
in some few places on the other continent. — D. Corn-silk consists 
of the threads projecting from the ears of corn, and is gathered 
when the corn is "shucked" or "husked;" the projecting ends of 
the styles are darker-colored, brownish to almost black, matted 
and tangled so that the threads are held together in tufts or 
bundles, the threads of which, where they were covered by the 




Fig. 347. 



"shucks" are pale yellowish or yellowish-green, about 15 cm. long, 
fine silky hairy and delicately veined longitudinally ; without odor, 
taste sweetish. — C. Sugar, mucilage, etc. — U. Reputed to be diu- 
retic, nephritic and lithontriptic. Useful in cystitis from any 
cause. Dose: 2 to 10 grams, in infusion or fluid extract. 

The drawing on the left (Fig. 347) shows the "ear" of corn, a 
spadix surrounded by spathes that form the "shucks" when 
mature, and from the ends of which the long styles with their 
stigmas project; the right hand figure shows the spadix with its 
female flowers and the styles and stigmas, while the two small 
figures show single female flowers, one enlarged ; both the larger 
figures are much smaller than in nature. 



408 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



FRUITS 



This group includes not only whole fruits, but parts of fruits as 
well. In the trade the terms ' ' fruits ' ' and ' ' seeds ' ' have not been 
sufficiently accurately differentiated, as many drugs are called 
" seeds" which in reality are fruits, as for instance, " anise 
seed," "caraway seed," etc. In pharmacognosy such inaccu- 
racies are not permissible, and the student should make an effort 
to learn as soon as possible to use scientific words only in their 
correct meaning. 

Strictly speaking, a fruit is the ripened ovary with all that it 
contains; this may be thought of as a "true fruit" to distinguish 
it, for purposes of pharmacognosy, from "spurious fruits." It 
is common to call the matured ovary with all that is attached to 
it a fruit, although in some fruits of this kind the bulk of the 
fruit may thus be formed by a calyx tube that was adherent to 
the ovary, as in the apple, or of woody or leathery scales that 
were not part of the flower at all, as in cones and strobiles, or of 
the thickened end of the stem, or receptacle, as in the strawberry 
or fig ; such a structure is a " spurious fruit ' ' and the true fruits 
may be enclosed within, as in rose hips or figs, or they may be on 
the outside, as in the strawberry. 

Fruits are divided into three groups: Fleshy Fruits, in which 
the seeds are inclosed in a more or less soft and juicy flesh ; Stone 
Fruits or Drupes, in which the outer part (under leaf surface) of 
the ovary becomes soft and fleshy and the inner part (upper leaf 
surface) of the ovary hardens into a stony shell which envelopes 
the seed, like a nut ; and Dry Fruits, having no fleshy part at all, 
the entire ovary hardening into a stony, leathery, hard or tough 
structure which envelopes the seeds and in some kinds becomes per- 
manently united to the outer seed coat, while in other kinds the 
ovary opens or dehisces and allows the seeds to fall out. 

Fruits may be further divided into Simple Fruits, when a single 
pistil of a single flower developes into one fruit, and compound 
Fruits (also called multiple or collective) when a large number of 
pistils of one flower produce a cluster of fruits, as in raspberry, 
or when a number of single flowers develop so that the fruits are 
united into apparently one fruit, as in mulberry. 

Some authors make a distinction between different kinds of com- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 409 

pound fruits, thus : An Aggregate Fruit is one in which the indi- 
vidual fruits were all developed from the carpels of the same flower, 
while a compound fruit resulting from a consolidation of the car- 
pels of several or many flowers is called a Collective or Compound 
Fruit. 

Fruits which are not used to make medicinal preparations, or 
which are not recognized in some pharmacopoeia or other, but 
which are only used for making "crushed fruits" or "fruit 
syrups ' ' for the soda water fountain, or for similar purposes, as 
strawberry, blackberry, cherry, grape, pineapple etc., are not 
drugs and therefore are not described in this book. 

f Spurious LVIII 

Fresh \ Fleshy LIX 

[Stone Fruits LX 

'Spurious LXI 

Dry LXn 

Fleshy LXIII 

Stone Fruits LXIV 

Parts of Fruits LXV 



Fruits . 



Dried or prepared, 



GROUP LVIII 

Fresh Spurious Fruits 

The fruits of this group are seldom employed, partly perhaps 
because one of them is not easily obtainable, and the prepara- 
tions made from them are not often prescribed. 

The pome is a fruit in which the fleshy mass, which constitutes 
the principal thickness, is formed by development of the calyx, 
as in the apple, pear and quince. 

Pitcher-shaped or ovate berry-like fruit, about 2 cm. long, 

bright glossy red, bristly hairy within Rosa Canina. 

Globular or subglobular pome; green, russet, yellow, red or 

varicolored; acidulous sweet Malum. 

Rosa Canina 

N. Cynosbata, Rose Hips, Hips. — 0. The spurious fruit of Rosa 
canina; Rosacece. — H. Europe. — D. Pitcher-shaped or ovate re- 



410 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



ceptacle, about 2 cm. long, bright glossy red, fleshy, inclosing a 
number of brown dry fruits or akenes with bristly hairs; odor 
slight and taste sweetish acidulous; see Fig. 348. — 0. Malic acid, 




Fig. 348. 

citric acid, sugar, gum, etc. — U. Mild refrigerant 
the interior akenes and hairs are first removed. 



when used, 



Malum 

N. Fructus Mali, Ponwm, Apple. — 0. The fruit of Pyrus Malus; 
Rosacece. — H. Cultivated in temperate zones. — D. Fig. 349 shows 
a longitudinal and a transverse section of an apple, to explain 
structure. The apple consists of five leathery carpels each en- 
closing several seeds, arranged in a stellate manner, forming the 
"core" of the apple (or the true fruits), and surrounded by a 




Fig. 349. 



large fleshy mass which is the developed calyx; there are many 
varieties of apple in cultivation, varying in color and flavor, 
green, russet, yellow, red, striated, varicolored, and from very 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 411 

sweet and mealy to sour and juicy ; for medicinal use only a sour 
and juicy apple is available. — C. Fruit acids (malic, etc.), sugar, 
etc. — U. The only medicinal use made of the apple is in preparing 
Extraction ferri pomatum- (from which in turn Tinctura ferri 
pomata is made ; the word pomatus, a, um being a Latin adjective 
meaning "made from apples") ; cider made from sour apples is 
poured over iron filings in a stone jar and after fermentation 
and maceration the liquid is decanted and evaporated to solid 
extract consistence. This preparation is tolerated by the most 
sensitive stomachs, and is a chalybeate preparation that deserves 
more consideration at the hands of American physicians than it 
is receiving. 

GROUP LIX 

Fresh Fleshy Fruits 

Fleshy fruits are also called berries; this group therefore com- 
prises the berries which are used in the fresh condition. Berries 
proper are fleshy throughout; the lemon and orange are berries 
with leathery rind ; a gourd is a berry with a hard rind, and a 
pome is a fleshy fruit resembling a berry, but formed mainly of a 
fleshy calyx, as the apple, etc. ; therefore the pome is really a 
spurious fruit, but because the apple would likely be looked for in 
this group it is also mentioned here. (See previous group.) 

The raspberry is usually called a berry, but is really an aggre- 
gate or multiple fruit, each little fruit being a drupe, similar in 
structure to a plum, although of course much smaller. See next 
group for description. 

Oval, bright yellow fruits, with very acid juice Limon. 

Globular or subglobular, orange-colored fruits, with acidu- 
lous sweet juice A.urantii Fructus 

Globular green berry, about 2.5 cm. in diameter, with 4- 

lobed persistent calyx and about five seeds Diospyros. 

Globular or subglobular pome; green, russet, yellow, red or 

varicolored; acidulous sweet Malum. 

A collective or multiple fruit, composed of numerous small 

drupes; red or black Rubus Idaeus. 

Small round fruit resembling a berry, about 5 mm. in diam- 
eter, brownish-black with bluish bloom Juniperus. 



412 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Limon 



N. Fructus Citri; Lemon. — 0. The fresh fruit of Citrus Medica 
Limonum; Rutacecc (Aurantiacece). — H. Cultivated in sub-tropical 
countries. — D. Fig. 350 shows the fruit in natural size ; oval, with 
nipple-shaped apex, glandulous bright-yellow ("lemon-yellow") 
rind; contains an agreeably acid juice. The section of the lemon 
closely resembles that of the orange (see next figure), but the 



•^'$5k. 



^i , • v :'■•-'•.^.'••':■•.'■'•'>^i^ , 









ft-.* : 






Fig. 350. 

rind is closely adherent so that it must be peeled on 3 with a knife ; 
the rind is fragrant, bitter. The fruit must be fresh and sound. — 
C. The rind contains a volatile oil and the juice contains from 7 
to 9 per cent citric acid. — U. The juice, or the acid, is much used 
as an antiscorbutic; it is also used as a refrigerant drink in the 
form of lemonade. In the form of lemon juice it enjoys the popu- 
lar reputation of curing and preventing "biliousness." 

Limon, onis, f, is the lemon tree, of which limonia, a, f, is the 
fruit. The word limon is, however, used for the fruit occasionally. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



413 



The lime, the fruit of Citrus acris, is smaller than the lemon, 
with a thinner rind somewhat different in flavor from that of the 
lemon, pale yellowish-green, and with a very acid juice; this va- 
riety of fruit is preferred by many in the making of "mixed 
drinks," "whiskey sour," etc. 

Fructus Aurantii 

N. Orange. — 0. The fresh fruit of Citrus Aurantium Sinensis; 
Rntacew (Aurantiacece) . — H. Subtropical countries. — D. Sim- 
ilar in structure to the lemon, but globular or subglobular, with- 
out nipple-shaped apex, but with apex sometimes nodulated as in 




Fig. 351. 

the "navel" oranges; giandulous orange-colored rind. Fig. 351 
shows a section of an orange; the rind of the orange separates 
readily from the edible portion within, which is in sections also 
easily separable from each other ; the number of these sections is 
somewhat variable, as is also the number of seeds which vary in 
number from many, to none at all as in the "seedless" orange. — 
C. Citric acid, sugar, etc. The rind yields a volatile oil. — U. The 
orange is an agreeably acidulous sweet fruit, and is much used 
as a refrigerant and refreshing diet; or the juice is expressed and 
is taken as a refrigerant and laxative drink in febrile conditions. 



414 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Diospyros 

N. Persimmon. — 0. The fresh and unripe fruit of Diospyros 
Virginiana; Ebenacece. — H. In the rich bottom lands of the rivers 
of the United States. — D. Form and size are shown in Fig. 352, 
green, smooth, with persistent 4-lobed calyx and about five 
smooth and dark-brown seeds ; odor pleasant fruit-like, taste in- 
tensely astringent. On ripening, the quantity of tannic acid de- 
creases, and after frosts in autumn the astringent taste disap- 
pears altogether and the fruit becomes a pleasantly acidulous 
sweet article of diet. — C. The unripe fruit contains tannic acid. — 
U. Astringent. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. 

Malum, or apple, was described in the previous group, and the 
description of Rubus Idseus, or raspberry will be found in the 
next group. 




Fig. 352. 

Juniperus, or Juniper Berries, are not really berries nor are 
they fresh, but they have been prepared in a manner similar to 
that of drying grapes to make raisins, preserved in their own 
sugar by partially drying. Yet they look like 'fresh berries and 
some might look here for them and they are therefore mentioned, 
but the description is given in the proper place, under Group 
LXI. 

GROUP LX 

Fresh Stone Fruits 

The only drug of this group is a collective or compound drupa- 
ceous fruit. 

Numerous red or black stone-fruits united into a small, round- 
conical cluster with hollow base: sweet, acidulous Rubus Idaeus. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



415 



Rubus Idaeus 

N. Raspberry. — 0. The fruit of Rubus Idmusj Rosacece. — H. 
Cultivated in Europe and America. — D. Fig. 353 shows the fruit 
in natural size, whole and in longitudinal section; it consists of 
about thirty to forty diminutive drupes; each one with a with- 
ered style, as shown plainer in the two smaller drawings, which 
show the individual fruit enlarged, whole and in section. When 
plucked these small fruits remain attached to each other, but 
separate from the white, pithy receptacle which remains on the 
stem; the cluster then forms a round-conical or hemispherical 
cup-shaped, red, finely hairy "berry," of an agreeable odor and 
pleasant sweet acidulous taste. — C. Citric and malic acids, pectin, 
fruit sugar, coloring matter, etc. — U. For flavoring. 

The light-red fruit of Rubus strigosus (Wild Raspberry) and 




Fig. 353. 



the purplish-black fruit of R. occidetitalis (Black Raspberry) are 
often used instead of and for the same purposes as the above ; a 
mixture of the red and black raspberries in about equal quanti- 
ties makes an exceptionally rich-looking and well-flavored syrup. 



GROUP LXI 

Dried or Prepared Spurious Fruits 

Of this group three drugs are dried, hops, long pepper and 
chenopodium, and two are only partly dried, being prepared or 
preserved by their own inspissated juices, fig and juniper berries. 
The structure of each, and therefore the reasons why each must 
be considered a spurious fruit, being peculiar, this will be ex- 
plained in connection with the individual drugs. 



416 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Before proceeding to the consideration of these drugs it may 
be well to recall to memory the structure of two kinds of spurious 
fruits, of the cone or strobile, and of the syconium. The cone is 
the peculiar compound fruit of the Coniferae, a class of plants to 
which the pines, cypresses, etc., belong; the female inflorescence is 
composed of an axis on which are arranged a number of scales, 
which are considered to be open ovaries by some, and on the inner 
side of each scale there may be found one or two naked or un- 
covered ovules; when this matures, it forms a scaly spurious 
fruit with one or two naked seeds on the inner side of each scale. 
The word strobile is used by some as synonymous with cone, by 
others is applied to cones which do not become woody, but remain 
flexible or soft. 

The syconium is a fleshy receptacle or summit of the plant axis, 
hollowed out and lined within by a multitude of minute flowers 
which, when mature, are often supposed to be the seeds, whereas 
they are the real fruits, and the fleshy receptacle which is used, 
as in the fig or in rose hips (already considered) is not a fruit, 
but a spurious fruit. 

Strobile with flexible scales; yellowish-green Humulus. 

Small round fruit resembling a berry, about 5 mm. in diam- 
eter, brownish-black with bluish bloom Juniperus. 

Compressed, of irregular shape, fleshy, yellowish-brown; very 

sweet Ficus. 

Cylindrical, about 4 to 5 cm. long, 5 mm. thick, spirally 

nodulated, stalked, grayish-brown Piper longum. 

Dull greenish or greenish-brown fruit, about 1 mm. in diam- 
eter, depressed globular, obscurely lobed, containing a 
glossy black seed; peculiar odor and pungent taste Chenopodium. 

Humulus 

N. Hops. — 0. The strobiles of Humulus Lupulus; TJrticacece. — 
H. Cultivated. — D. The illustration gives a correct idea of the shape 
and size of the drug. It is not correct, strictly speaking, to call 
this a strobile, because the ovules on the inner side of the bracts 
or scales of the catkin are not naked, but are contained in ovaries, 
which are in turn contained in a sheathing calyx; the akenes are 
therefore real fruits (ripened ovary with its contents), but as the 
bulk of the structure is made up of scales, part of which are the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 417 

developed bracts and others the developed calyces, it looks like a 
strobile and it may be considered to be "a sort of membranaceous 
strobile" (see Fig. 354). These strobiles or fruit-cones are about 
3 cm. long, oval, yellowish-green, and consist of many ovate, mem- 
branous, glandulous scales attached to a thin and hairy undulated 
axis. The fruit is an akene, and it, as well as its enveloping calyx 
scale, should be thickly beset with minute brownish-red glands. 
The odor of hops is strongly aromatic and the taste is bitter, aro- 
matic and slightly astringent. — C. About 1 per cent volatile oil, 9 
to 18 per cent resin, 3 to 4 per cent tannin, etc. The bitter and 
aromatic properties of this drug reside in the minute glands al- 
ready referred to, which, when separately sold, constitute the 
drug which is commonly called ' l Lupulin. ' ' — U. Bitter tonic, sto- 




machic and anodyne. Dose : 1 to 5 grams, in fluid extract or in in- 
fusion. Also used locally to allay pain, in the form of dry and 
hot "hop pillows," or moist as fomentations or poultices. 

Hops should be whole and unbroken ; the lupulin has probably 
been at least partially removed from broken or much crumbled 
drug. Brown, spotted or discolored hops, or hops which is seen 
under a lens to be poor in lupulin glands, should be rejected for 
medicinal purposes. Old hops sometimes has a disagreeable odor, 
from valeric acid formed by the oxidation of the volatile oil; the 
odor should be fresh, and strongly and pleasantly aromatic. 

Juniperus 

N. Juniper Berries. — 0. The ripe fruit, a fleshy cone, of Juni- 
perus communis; Coniferce. — H. Northern hemisphere. — D. The 



418 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



fertile catkin of common juniper consists of three fleshy coalescent 
scales, each with one naked ovule, which, when ripened at the 
end of the second year, form a fleshy cone or strobile resembling 
a berry. This fruit is therefore botanically a cone, a form of 
spurious fruit. Fig. 355 shows a little twig with two fruits in 
natural size, a fruit enlarged, whole and in section, and seed in 
natural size and enlarged, and in transverse section enlarged to 
show the oil-vesicles on seeds. Juniper berries are globular or 
subglobular, about 5 mm. in diameter, marked on top with 
three raphes meeting in the center, each triangular space be- 
tween these being marked with a small wart; externally cov- 
ered with a bluish bloom, so that they look dark-blue, but where 
the bloom is rubbed off the color is brownish-black and glossy; 
internally pithy-fleshy, brownish-green, containing three sub- 
triangular seeds, the seeds having oil-vesicles on their surfaces. 




Fig. 355. 

Odor peculiar, aromatic and terebinthinate, and taste sweetish 
spicy. — C. From 1 to 2 per cent volatile oil, about 30 per cent 
sugar, some resin, etc.; they are partially dried, by which they 
are preserved by their own sugar in similar manner as raisins 
and figs are preserved. — U. Stimulant, diuretic and emmena- 
gogue. Dose: 1 to 5 grams in fluid extract, or a teaspoonful to 
tablespoonful of "roob juniperi" or syrup. 



Ficus 

N. Fig. — 0. The fruit, a syconium, of Ficus Carica; Urtica- 
cece. — H. Cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries.— D. 
As found in the trade, figs are partly dried and then compressed 
into wooden boxes; they are irregular in shape, mostly some- 
what flattened, angular, yellowish-brown, fleshy, covered with 
an efflorescence of sugar, and contain many minute fruits which 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



419 



are commonly called "seeds;" odor fragrant, fruit-like, and 
taste very sweet and slightly mucilaginous. Fig. 356 shows the 
hollow receptacle, whole and in longitudinal section, natural 
size; it is pear-shaped, short-stalked, with the opening at apex 
protected by some scales; in the section the part shaded in small 
dots is the receptacle and the interior shows the manner in which 
the many minute female flowers are arranged. The smaller 
drawings represent a few female flowers and one male flower, 
both much enlarged. The unripe fruit is green, changing on 
ripening to purplish-green or purplish-red to yellowish-red, ac- 




Fig. 356. 



cording to variety. The male flowers are situated near the 
orifice while the interior contains only female flowers; fertiliza- 
tion depends largely on small insects which carry the pollen 
with them as they enter the receptacle on their way to gather 
nectar from the flowers within, and it is reported that the figs 
of California were much improved by the introduction of this 
insect from the fig-orchards of Smyrna in Asia Minor, from 
which we obtain the best figs of the trade. While the fruit is 
green it contains a milky juice, which disappears when the fruit 
ripens; the matured fruit is up to 8 cm. long and to 5 cm. thick 
at the widest part, and the compressed commercial fruit re- 
sumes its natural shape and size on soaking in water. — C. About 
62 per cent of sugar, some gum, etc. — U. Demulcent and laxa- 
tive. Roasted figs are sometimes applied to abscesses of the 
gums as poultice. 



420 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Piper Longum 

N. Long Pepper. — 0. The fully grown but still immature 
fruits coalesced with all the other structures of the spike or in- 
florescence of Chavica officinarum; Piperacece. — H. East Indian 
and Philippine Islands. — D. The rhachis, bracts and ovaries all 
develop and enlarge on fertilization and become consolidated 
into a cylindrical mass which is about 3.5 to 5 cm. long and 
about 5 mm. thick, with a stalk about 1 cm. long and with the 
fruits arranged spirally around the rhachis, giving the whole a 




Fig. 357. 



nodulated appearance; blackish-gray, dusty; odor and taste like 
those of black pepper. One of the drawings of Fig. 357 shows 
the tip (about one-fourth of total length) of the fresh female 
spike, a being the berries and b the bracts which accompany the 
ovaries and which develop as the fruit develops. The other 
drawing shows a section of the cylinder, with about 7 to 8 berries 
arranged around the rhachis of the spike. Both drawings are 
very much enlarged. All of these structures are present in the 
drug, but when dried and partially disfigured by attrition (to 
which the dusty appearance of the drug is due) cannot be seen 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 421 

as distinctly in the drug as in the fresh spike or in the draw- 
ing. — C. Like those of black pepper; piperin, fatty oil, resin, 
volatile oil, etc. — U. Condiment, mainly; stimulant carminative. 
Dose: 0.3 to 1.5 grams. 

Chenopodium 

N. Chenopodium, Wormseed, American Wormseed. — 0. The 

fruit of Chenopodium ambrosioides, var. anthelmintic urn; Cheno- 
podiacece. — H. Sub-tropical America, but naturalized and a com- 
mon weed in United States. — D. Small, depressed-globular, 
slightly lobed or ridged fruits, about 1 mm. in diameter, yellow- 
ish-gray to greenish-brown, very brittle and fragile; the minute 
seed is nattish, circular, glossy black, with the embryo curved 
around the edges of the seed; the fruit is a utricle, but it is so 
closely surrounded by and united with the five segments of the 
calyx which form the bulk of the fruit, that it is more proper 




Fig. 35 



to consider this to be a spurious fruit. Fig. 358 shows a section 
of a seed, and the whole fruit, both much enlarged ; the lobing is, 
however, often much less prominently marked. Odor offensively 
aromatic, peculiar and taste bitterish pungent. — C. Volatile oil. — 
U. Anthelmintic. Dose: 1 to 2 sjrams. 



GROUP LXII 

Dry Fruits 

There is a great diversity of forms of fruits of this kind and 
works on botany give separate and distinctive names to quite a 
number of varieties of these fruits. The main characteristic of 
fruits of this group is, that the ovary develops into a dry, mem- 
branous, or even stony or hard structure in which the seed or 
seeds are contained; rarely does any part of such fruits remain 
fleshy, when fully ripe. 



422 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

It will facilitate the study of this group of drugs to review 
briefly the characteristics of important forms, although the dif- 
ferent authors on pharmacognosy lay no particular stress on the 
correct botanical definitions of the names of fruits which they 
employ, so that what one author calls a carpel another may call 
a follicle, and still another may call it a capsule. 

A broad distinction may be based on the dehiscence. Some dry 
fruits dehisce or open when ripe; these usually contain several or 
many seeds and some authors call all such dehiscing dry fruits 
1 ' pods " or ' ' capsules. ' ' Other dry fruits are indehiscent, that is, 
they do not open, but the ovary forms an envelope for the seed 
which remains closed, and which is often so seed-like in appear- 
ance that such fruits may be mistaken for naked seeds. In fact, 
in the ordinary trade nomenclature fruits of this kind are usually 
spoken of as "seeds," as for instance "hemp seed," "anise 
seed," etc. Indehiscent dry fruits are usually one-seeded. 

The word "carpel" is used by many authors to designate cer- 
tain dry fruits; the word, however, does not properly designate 
a fruit, for it means a simple pistil; each component leaf or pistil 
of a compound pistil is also a carpel; a flower may contain one 
or several or many separate or simple carpels. When a simple 
carpel matures into a fruit, or when each component carpel of 
what in the flower appeared to be a compound pistil matures 
into a separate fruit, such fruits may be akenes, follicles, leg- 
umes, pods, utricles, etc., but it is customary also to refer to such 
fruits as "carpels," especially when it is a little difficult to de- 
termine just what else to call them. 

For convenience we will group dry fruits as dehiscent and inde- 
hiscent, and we will call the dehiscent fruits "pods" or "cap- 
sules" and will divide the indehiscent fruits into "akenes" and 
"cremocarps." These names and a few other names of fruits 
Ave will now briefly define. 

The pod is any dry dehiscent fruit ; it may be the product of a 
simple pistil, and it is then called a follicle if the carpel opens or 
dehisces on one side only, as in the fruit of star anise, or a legume 
or true pod when it opens on both sides, as in the pea or bean ; or it 
may be the product of a compound pistil, when it is properly 
called a capsule, as in poppy. 

Some few fruits have the structure of dehiscing fruits or pods, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



423 



yet do not dehisce at maturity, as, for instance, the pods of purg- 
ing cassia and of St. John's bread ; yet they must be placed among 
the pods, or dehiscing fruits, because they belong there on ac- 
count of their structure. It must be borne in mind, however, that 
some such fruits, if left ungathered, would probably dry out and 
decay so that dehiscence would take place at the beginning of the 
following season; in other words, there are many pods that re- 
main unopened through the winter, but open and drop their 
seeds early next spring when it is the proper time to sow them. 
Such may possibly be the case also with these two ' ' indehiscent 
pods." 

The akene is a small, indehiscent, one-seeded fruit; the fruits 
of composite flowers are also called akenes ; the utricle is an akene 




in which the ovary forms a thin, bladdery sac surrounding the 
seed, which may either break open irregularly or can be broken and 
removed by rubbing; the caryopsis or grain is an akene in which 
the ovary forms a thin membranaceous coating which is intimately 
united with the seed, appearing therefore to be merely a seed-coat, 
as in wheat, corn, etc. ; in a nut the ovary is changed to a hard, 
stony shell (made up of stone-cells) as in the hazel nut; cremocarp 
is the name given to the fruit of the Umbelliferce or umbelliferous 
plants, in which two carpels are intimately attached in the blos- 
som, both developing into akenes which sometimes separate 
when ripe, as in fennel and caraway, and sometimes remain per- 
manently attached to each other as in anise and coriander. 

We will consider the cremocarps (also called schizocarps by some 
authors) a little more fully. In Fig. 359 e shows the mature fruit 



424 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

of fennel, the two carpels or akenes still attached to each other, and 
c shows the same enlarged ; in b the fruits are seen separated but 
held together by the two-pronged prolongation of the receptacle, 
which is very brittle and easily broken so that the fruits are then 
entirely separated ; d is a longitudinal section, showing the embryo 
imbedded in the upper part of the albumen of the seed ; a is a 
transverse section of the fruit, showing the wall formed by the 
ovary and the albumen of the seed within (3), while 1 points out an 
oil-duct, or oil-tube (Latin : vitta, pi., vittce) which runs the length 
of the fruit, and 2 indicates a fibro-vascular bundle ; the fibro- 
vascular bundles are at the angles, and projecting outwardly 
where they are situated there are more or less distinctly marked 
ridges, giving characteristic appearances to the cross-sections 
and enabling us to recognize the various fruits of this kind 
thereby; between the fibro-vascular bundles are oil-ducts, vary- 
ing in number in different kinds of cremocarps, but fairly uni- 
form in number in cremocarps of the same kind. "With this ex- 
planation the enlarged drawings of the various cremocarps be- 
come self-explanatory. To examine these fruits, soak in water 
and cut transversely about the middle of the fruit; then examine 
the cut ends with a lens ; or a thin section may be cut from one of 
these pieces and cleared with solution of hydroxide of potassium, 
and then examined under the microscope. 

The taste and odor of most of the cremocarps are very char- 
acteristic. 

Capsules or, Pods 

Small, obtusely triangular, 3-celled capsules, 10 to 15 mm. 
long; central placenta with many brown seeds; 
pale buff Cardamomum. 

Eight reddish-brown woody follicles, arranged star- 
shaped; often some of the carpels are aborted; odor 
anise-like Illicium. 

Large, round or elongated, pale brownish-yellow capsules, 
1-celled, with many parietal placentas and contain- 
ing many white or bluish seeds Papaver. 

Fleshy, linear, dark-brown pod, up to 25 cm. long by 8 

mm. thick; very fragrant Vanilla. 

Hard, rigid, cylindrical, dark-brown pod, up to 60 cm. 

long by 2.5 cm. thick , Cassia Fistula. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 425 

Flat, broad, glossy brownish pod, about 10 to 20 cm. 

long, with up to 12 seeds; with sweetish pulp Coratonia. 

From 2 to 5 small, somewhat thick and fleshy pods at- 
tached to a short stalk; each about 5 mm. long and 
containing 1 or 2 glossy black seeds Xanthoxyli Fructus. 

Akenes 

Obovate-oblong, brownish-gray, somewhat curved akene, 

about 6 mm. long Lappse Fructus. 

Sub-globular, brownish or greenish-gray akene, about 4 

mm. in diameter, with a single oily seed Cannabis Fructus. 

Elliptic grain, about 7 to 9 mm. long, enclosed in straw- 
colored palese; taste farinaceous Hordei Fructus. 

Like preceding in appearance, but with sweet taste. .. .Maltum. 

Very small subglobular utricle, about 1 mm. in diam- 
eter; dull greenish-brownish color; contains shining- 
black seed Chenopodium. 

Elliptic, flattened, glossy pale, yellowish grain, about 4 

mm. long Phalaridis Fructus. 

Cremocakps 
Usually remaining united; with oil-tubes 

Oval; each fruit with 5 obscure ridges and about 16 oil- 
tubes; grayish, finely hairy Anisum. 

Globular, hollow, some of the ridges wavy; each fruit 
with 2 oil-tubes on inner face; brownish-yellow, 
smooth Coriandrum. 

Elongated, compressed from sides; each fruit with 5 
ridges and 6 oil-tubes; yellowish-brown; rough 
hairy Cumini Fructus. 

Elongated, nearly cylindrical, with 5-toothed calyx, 
ridges not prominent; each fruit with 6 oil-tubes; 
brownish-green Phellandrii Fructus. 

Often remaining united; without oil-tubes 

Oval, compressed from sides; each fruit with 5 nodu- 
lated ridges and 2 deep lateral grooves; no oil- 
tubes; albumen crescent-shaped in transverse sec- 
tion; brownish-green Conium. 

Usually separating ; with oil-tubes 

Elongated, compressed from sides; each fruit with 5 

obscure ridges and 6 oil-tubes; usually curved; 

brown Carum. 

Elongated, nearly cylindrical; each fruit with 5 angular 

ridges and 6 oil-tubes; smooth; yellowish-brown. . , , Fceniculum. 



426 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Koundisk-ovate, compressed from sides; each, fruit with 

5 obscure ridges and 6 oil-tubes; grayish-green .... Petroselini Fructus. 

Oval, compressed from back; each fruit with 3 sharp- 
keeled dorsal ridges and 2 long lateral ridges form- 
ing thin broad margins; 6 oil-tubes; brown Anethi Fructus. 

Very small, roundish-ovate, compressed from sides, 
smooth; each fruit with 5 angular ridges and 12 to 
15 oil-tubes; brown Apii Fructus. 

Elliptic, compressed from back; each fruit with 5 promi- 
nent ridges, the lateral ones larger, and 6 oil-tubes; 
yellowish-brown Levistici Fructus, 

Elliptic, compressed from back; each fruit with 3 promi- 
nent dorsal ridges and 2 long, fiat, lateral ridges; 
numerous oil-tubes; yellow Dauci Fructus. 

Oval, compressed from back; each fruit with 7 ridges, 2 
lateral and 2 dorsal spinous, and 3 dorsal short- 
hairy; 6 oil- tubes; grayish-brown Angelicae Fructus. 

Cardamomum 

N. Cardamom. — 0. The fruit of Elettaria Cardamomum; Zingi- 
beracece. — H. Malabar and India. — D. Ovoid or oblong 3-celled 
capsules, obtusely triangular, rounded at base and beaked at 
apex, about 1 to 2 cm. long, with central placenta and numerous 
brown, aromatic seeds and a thin, tough, leathery, buff-colored, 
tasteless shell. — C. The seeds contain about 4 to 5 per cent of an 
aromatic volatile oil. — U. As a spice, carminative and stomachic ; 
mainly as a flavoring agent and corrective. Dose: About 1 gram. 

Malabar cardamom and Aleppy cardamom are the only varie- 
ties generally employed in the United States. There are several 
other varieties, and the seeds may be derived partly from some 
of these; for instance, Madras cardamom, the round cardamom, 
and the Ceylon cardamom. 

All kinds of cardamoms are designated according to size by 
the terms, shorts, short-longs or medium, and longs. Shorts are 
from 10 to 15 mm. long; mediums from 15 to 25 mm. long, and 
longs from 2.5 to 5 cm. long. Malabar cardamoms are best. They 
are either shorts or short-longs, bleached or unbleached ; the choicest 
are short, plump, heavy, and have a pale straw color without any 
green tint, and they yield from % to % of their weight of seeds. 

Madras cardamoms are pale and thin, not plump, short-longs. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



427 



Aleppy cardamoms are shorts, of a somewhat greenish tint, and 
are of inferior quality. 

Ceylon cardamoms are longs, dark grayish-brown, and differ in 
odor and taste from the above kinds. 

In Fig. 360 a and o are Malabar shorts; c, Malabar mediums, and 
d Malabar longs; e is a section of Malabar cardamom, slightly en- 
larged ; / is round cardamom, from Java, and g is a section of the 
same, slightly enlarged; h shows Ceylon longs; except as otherwise 
noted, all are natural size. Cardamom seeds come into the trade as 
such, and are therefore described in their proper place, under 
Group LXVI. 




Fig. 360. 



Illicium 



N. Fructus Anisi Stcllati, Star Anise. — 0. The fruit of Illicium 
verum; MagnoliacecE. — H. China, Siam, Anam.- — D. A multiple 
fruit consisting of eight reddish-brown, woody follicles, arranged 
in a star-shaped or radiate whorl around a short central recep- 
tacle or axis which is a continuation of the stalk ; often the fol- 
licles are unevenly developed, or some are aborted, and generally 
the drug is much broken; each follicle is from 10 to 15 mm. long, 
boat-shaped, somewhat wrinkled, with straight point or beak, 
open at the upper suture, exposing the flat oval, glossy brown 
seed; odor like that of anise, taste sweetish aromatic. In Fig. 



428 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



361-A are shown two large,* well-developed fruits, one from the 
upper and the other from the lower side, two imperfectly and 
irregularly developed fruits, one follicle and one seed. — C. The 
follicles yield upwards of 5 per cent and the seeds about 2 per 
cent of a volatile oil that is practically identical with that of 
anise ; the total yield of the fruit is about 4 to 4% per cent of this 
oil; there is also a fixed oil, etc. — U. Similar to those of anise 
stimulant, carminative and stomachic, but mainly as a flavor 
it is also an ingredient of many of the ''pectoral teas." Dose 
0.5 to 2 grams. 

Adulteration. — The fruits of Illicium religiosum, shown in Fig 




Fig. 361-^4. 



361, are sometimes found mixed with the fruit of star anise, and in 
such case they were probably added as an adulteration. The fol- 
licles of this fruit are rougher, more wrinkled and shriveled, and 
have a beak or point that is bent upwards. The odor is faintly 
aromatic, possibly from having been in contact with the star anise, 
somewhat clove-like, and the taste is disagreeable, somewhat saline, 
faintly reminding of cardamom. The fruits are smaller than 
those of star anise and in bulk have the appearance of being 
lighter in color, the follicles being more opened, so that the 
lighter-colored interior is more exposed. This fruit is also called 
shikimi fruit, and it is said to be poisonous; but if so, it cannot 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



429 



be very poisonous because no serious effects seem to have followed 
its admixture to star anise ; the author once found a lot in trade 
which consisted of at least one-third of its weight of shikimi, and 
he chewed freely of this spurious star anise, without any effects 
whatever, and the lot was disposed of most likely in small lots 
by the wholesaler from whom a small quantity was obtained by 
the writer, and no bad effects Avere noted by anyone. 




Fig. 361-B. 



Papaver 

N. Poppy, Poppy Heads. — 0. The fruit of Papaver somnifcrum ; 
Papaveracece ; gathered before they are quite ripe. — H. Asia 
Minor and India ; cultivated. — D. There are capsules of various 
shapes, from elongated, to round and compressed or flat, but Fig. 
362 gives a good idea of the average size and shape; the capsule 
is pale-brown or buff-colored externally, with a large persistent 
stigma, under the lobes of Avhich are small valves which open at 
the time of dehiscence and allow the seeds to fall out. The walls 
of the capsule are brittle, and many of the capsules are broken 
in the drug; one-celled, but with many (8-15) parietal placentas 
to which numerous seeds are attached; most seeds are removed 
from the drug, but enough are always present to determine the 
kind; there are two varieties of poppy, the so-called "black" 
Avhich has bluish seeds and the "white" which has white seeds. 



430 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

It is usually stated that the white is to be preferred, but more 
probably there is no difference between the two kinds. The drug 
has no odor, but a somewhat bitter taste. — C. As these capsules, 
when fresh, furnish an exudation which forms opium, and as this 
milky juice is retained in the unincised capsules that are gathered 
for this drug, its constituents are the same as those of opium 




Fig. 362. 



(which see) but in very variable and uncertain proportions. — 
U. Slightly anodyne and sedative; mainly used in decoction or 
syrup as a cough medicine. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 

Vanilla 

N. Vanilla. — 0. The fruit, a fleshy pod, of Vanilla planifolia; 
Orchidacece; gathered before it is quite ripe. — H. Mexico; culti- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



431 



vated in other tropical countries. — D. The fruit of Vanilla is a 
dark-brown, flexible pod, from 15 to 25 cm. in length, and from 
4 to 8 mm. in thickness, linear, obtusely triangular, hooked at 
the base and obliquely narrowed at the apex; the walls of the 
pod are soft-leathery, and the interior is filled with a blackish- 
brown, oily pulp in which numerous minute black seeds are im- 
bedded; odor and taste peculiarly aromatic and fragrant. Fig. 
363 shows a whole pod, cut in halves to allow of illustration in 
natural size, and also a section enlarged, which may be pre- 
pared by first cutting it, then extracting the oil, etc., with ether, 
then soaking in dilute alcohol, then in water, to remove the color, 





Fig. 363. 



and finally clearing, as usual. The pod is one-celled, but has 
several placentas which bear the numerous seeds. — C. About 2 
per cent of vanillin, some of which sometimes forms a crystalline 
efflorescence on the outer surface of the drug; some fixed oil, 
sugar, etc. — U. For flavoring. 

When ripe, the pod opens along the two darker-colored lines 
seen in the section; but it is gathered while still unripe and is 
treated by a process of "sweating" or fermentation, by which 
its aroma is fully developed and dehiscence is prevented. 

Mexican vanilla is the best kind ; it sometimes is more than 25 
cm. long. It conies into trade tied into bundles containing about 
50 fruits each; these bundles are then wrapped in tin-foil and 
several bundles are packed in a tin box. 



432 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Bourbon vanilla is shorter, lighter-colored, and its odor re- 
sembles somewhat that of tonka bean. Venezuelan, Brazilian 
and other varieties of vanilla are not usually found in the 
trade. 

Vanilla is valued to a great extent by length ; it is assorted ac- 
cording to length, and the longer the bean the higher the price 
of any given weight of the drug. 

Cassia Fistula 

N. Purging Cassia. — 0. The pod of Cassia Fistula; Legumi- 
nosm. — H. West Indies. — D. An indehiscent, hard, rigid, 
cylindrical pod with two raphes on opposite sides down 
the length of the fruit ; up to 60 cm. long and 2 to 3 cm. in diame- 
ter, of a rich dark-brown color, and containing in separate trans- 
verse cells from 25 to 100 ovate, nattish, glossy reddish-brown 




Fig. 364. 

seeds imbedded in a thick, tough, blackish-brown, sweet pulp 
which has the odor of prunes. Fig. 364 shows a small end of one 
of the fruits in natural size. — C. Good purging cassia contains 
about one-third of its weight of pulp, which is the only valuable 
portion; this pulp contains about 60 per cent of sugar, some mu- 
cilage, pectin, etc. — U. Mild laxative, mainly employed in combi- 
nation, as in confection of senna. Dose: As a laxative, 5 to 10 
grams ; as a purgative, 25 to 50 grams. 

Ceratonia 

N. Siliqua Dulcis; St. John's Bread. — O. The pod of Ceratonia 
Siliqua; Leguminosce. — H. Southern Europe and the Orient. — D. 
An indehiscent, flat, broad, glossy brownish pod, about 10 to 20 cm. 
long, 2 to 3 cm. broad and 3 to 8 mm. thick, thicker at the edges 
than in the center, grooved at the edges ; the external fruit-coat is 



HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 



433 



leathery; the interior contains from 3 up to 12 or 13 transverse 
cells, each lined with a papery membrane and containing a nat- 
tish oval, glossy brown and very hard seed in a pulp, which in 
the dry condition, as in the drug, is tough and alveolar, and 
which has an agreeably pleasant odor and taste. Fig. 365 shows 
one pod Avhole, one partly split in half and a tranverse section of 
a pod. — C. 40 to 50 per cent of sugar, some mucilage, pectin, 




_ -> 



Fig. 365. 



etc. — U. Slightly laxative and demulcent; occasionally used in 
pectoral teas, etc. ; sometimes imported as food for cattle, but 
in the drug-stores used mainly as "laggniappe." 



Xanthoxyli Fructus 

N. Prickly Ash Fruit, Prickly Ash Berries.— 0. The fruits of 
Xanthoxylum Americana m (X. fraxineum) and X. Clava-Her- 
culis (X. Carolinian-urn) ; Xanthoxylacece. — H. United States. — 
D. Somewhat thick and fleshy pods, some with, most without 
stalks, each about 4 to 5 mm. long, yellowish-brown, somewhat 
wrinkled and containing 1, more rarely 2, glossy, black seeds. 
The pods of X. car. grow in clusters of 2 or 3, those of X. jr. in 
clusters of 3 to 5, but they rarely remain attached to each other 



434 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

in the drug, but are usually broken apart and partly opened from 
the separation of the two valves, and often empty and mixed with 
the separated seeds. The seeds are subglobular when single, com- 
pressed and flattened when two in a pod, wrinkled, glossy black, 
and contain a white albumen and embryo. Fig. 366 shows three 




Fig. 366. 

pods much enlarged, and several pods and a seed in natural size. 
Odor aromatic, taste pungent. — C. Volatile oil, resin, etc. — U. 
Nervine tonic, arterial stimulant, sialagogue, diaphoretic and al- 
terative. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 

Lappse Fructus 

N. Burdock Fruit, Burdock Seed. — 0. The fruit (akene) of 
Lappa officinalis; Compositor. — Europe and America. — D. The 
akenes, shown in Fig. 367 in natural size and enlarged, are ob- 
ovate-oblong, flattened, transversely wrinkled, sometimes some- 
what curved, about 6 mm. long, to 3 mm. wide, brownish-gray, 




Fig. 367. 



mottled; pappus stiff hairy-bristly, but usually wanting in the 
drug. No odor, taste bitter. — C. Fixed oil, resin, some bitter 
principle, etc. — U. Bitter tonic; alterative in psoriasis, etc. Dose: 
1 to 4 grams, best in fluid extract. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



435 



Cannabis Fructus 

N. Hemp Seed. — 0. The fruit (akene) of Cannabis sativa; Urti- 
cacece (Cannabinacece). — H. Indigenous to Asia, but cultivated 
everywhere ; see also Group IX. — D. Fig. 368 shows the fruit 
natural size, and whole and in longitudinal and transverse sec- 
tions, all much enlarged. An oval or subglobular akene, about 4 
mm. long by 2 mm. broad; the fruit-shell is greenish or grayish- 
brown externally, with a whitish keel on the margin, netted- 
veined, smooth, internally dark olive-green or brown, brittle, one- 




Fig. 368. 

celled, two-valved, but not dehiscent, and contains one white, 
oily seed consisting of a curved embryo without albumen; no 
odor, taste nutty, sweet. — C. About 30 per cent fixed oil, albu- 
minoids, sugar, etc. — U. Sometimes used as a demulcent in the 
form of an emulsion, but most frequently used for bird-food. 

Hordei Fructus 

N. Barley. — 0. The fruit (caryopsis or grain) of Hordeum dis- 
tichum; Graminaccce. — H. Cultivated. — D. Fig. 369 shows barley 




Fig. 369. 



in natural size and enlarged, with the paleae enclosing the fruit 
proper and closely united therewith. The fruit is from 7 to 9 mm. 
long, 2 to 3 mm. broad, tapering towards the ends, with a groove 
along the front, smooth on the back, straAV-colored on account 



436 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

of the adhering paleae, brownish when the latter are removed; 
no odor, taste mealy. — C. About 60 to 70 per cent starch, gluten, 
sugar, fat, etc. — U. Food. 

Maltum 

Maltum Hordei, or malt, is made by causing barley to germinate 
until the sprout reaches about the length of the fruit, when 
further germination is stopped by quickly raising the temperature 
and drying the fruit ; barley loses about 10 to 20 per cent of its 
weight when changed to malt, and much of the starch is changed 
to dextrin, sugar, etc. 

For Pearl Barley see Group LXX. 

Chenopodium, or American Wormseed, is sometimes consid- 
ered to be a dry fruit. It is really a utricle, but is enclosed in the 
calyx, which constitutes the bulk of the fruit, for which reason it 
has been described in Group LXI, Spurious Fruits. 

Phalaridis Fructus 

N. Semen Canariense, or Canary Seed. — 0. The fruit (caryopsis 
or grain) of Phalaris Canariensis; Graminacece. — H. Indigenous 
to the Canary Islands, but also cultivated elsewhere, — D. The 
drawings show Canary Seed in natural size and enlarged. An 




elliptic fruit, about 4 mm. long and iy 2 mm. broad, flattish, en- 
closed in two hard paleag which are not united with the fruit; the 
paleaB are keeled, glossy yellowish-gray and finely hairy, and the 
enclosed fruit is smooth, brownish, with a small embryo and a 
mealy albumen.— U. One of the usual ingredients of ''mixed bird 
seeds." 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Anisi Fructus 



437 



N. Anisum, Anise. — 0. The fruit of Pinipinella Anisum; TJm- 
belliferce. — H. Indigenous to the Orient, but also cultivated in 
Europe. — D. Oval, about 2 to 3 mm. long, grayish or grayish- 
green, finely hairy; the two mericarps usually remain adherent; 
each fruit has 5 obscure ridges and about 16 (but sometimes up 
to 30 or more) oil-tubes; odor peculiar, aromatic, taste spicy, 




Fig. 371. 

sweet. — C. About 1.5 to 3 per cent volatile oil, some fixed oil, 
sugar, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant; mainly used for flavoring. 
Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. 

Anise should be plump and sound, and free from dirt and 
small stones, with which it is often mixed. It is said to be some- 
times mixed with Conium fruit which it somewhat resembles, but 
the writer has never seen any such admixture. 

Coriandri Fructus 

N. Coriandrum, Coriander. — 0. The fruit of Coriandrum sati- 
vum; UmbellifercB. — H. Asia and Europe; cultivated. — D. Globu- 
lar, about 3 to 4 mm. in diameter, light-brown ; the two meri- 




Fig. 372. 

carps remain adherent, each fruit having 5 wavy and 4 straight 
ridges on the back; face concave, thus making the whole fruit 
hollow ; each fruit has 2 oil-tubes on the face ; the fresh fruit has 
a nauseous odor, reminding of bed-bugs, but the dried fruit is 
agreeably aromatic, taste spicy. — C. About 0.5 per cent volatile 
oil, some fixed oil, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant; mainly used for 
flavoring. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 



438 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Cumini Fructus 



N. Cuminum, Cumin. — 0. The fruit of Cuminum Cyminum; 
Vmbelliferm. — H. Northeastern Africa. — D. Oblong or elongated, 
compressed from the sides, about 4 mm. long, yellowish-brown; 
the two mericarps remain adherent ; each fruit has 3 prominent 




Fig. 373. 

ridges which are narrow and beset with fine hairs, and 4 broad 
grooves down the middle of each of which there is a slight ridge 
with short, soft spines; each mericarp has 6 oil-tubes, 4 lying 
under the grooves and 2 on the face; odor and taste peculiar, 
resembling caraway. — C. Volatile oil, the yield of which is va- 
riously stated, from 0.25 to 3 per cent (probably because the 
yield is very variable), some fixed oil, resin, etc. — U. Carminative, 
stimulant. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 

Phellandrii Fructus 

N. Phellandrium, Water-Fennel, 5-leaved Water Hemlock. — 
0. The fruit of Oenantke Phellandrium; Umbelliferaz. — H. Europe 




Fig. 374. 



and Northern Asia. — D. Oblong or elongated, nearly cylindrical, 
but tapering toward the upper end, about 4 mm. long, smooth, 
brown or blackish-brown; the two mericarps remain adherent; 
each fruit has 5 obtuse ridges, 4 narrow grooves and 6 oil-tubes; 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



439 



taste and odor disagreeably aromatic. — C. A volatile alkaloid re- 
sembling coniine (?), about 1 per cent volatile oil, some fixed 
oil, resin, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant, diaphoretic, diuretic, 
and when fresh probably somewhat narcotic. Dose: About 0.5 
gram, or up to 2 grams during 24 hours. 

Conii Fructus 

N. Conium, Hemlock Fruit. — 0. The full-grown but unripe 
fruits of Conium maculatum; Umbelliferce. — H. Europe and Asia ; 
naturalized in North America. — D. Oval, compressed from sides, 
about 3 mm. long, grayish to brownish-green (brown or brown- 
ish-black when ripe); if gathered when ripe or nearly ripe the 
two mericarps generally separate, but if gathered while still 




Fig. 375. 



green, the mericarps usually remain adherent, although they are 
deeply notched along the sides; each fruit has five undulated 
ridges, which are somewhat lighter-colored than the grooves; no 
oil-tubes; on transverse section the seed (albumen) appears cres- 
cent-shaped, on account of being notched or grooved on the face 
side (Fig. 375) ; little odor or taste, but the odor becomes offen- 
sively disagreeable on the addition of solution of hydroxide of 
potassium. — 0. A volatile alkaloid coniine, traces of volatile oil, 
some fixed oil, etc.— U. Narcotic, hypnotic, sedative, mainly in 
the insomnia of the insane. Dose: 0.1 to 0.3 gram. 

In over-doses conium is a narcotic poison ; the antidotal treat- 
ment consists in the use of the stomach pump or emetics, the in- 
ternal use of stimulants and astringents, and the external use of 
friction, warmth, flagellation, etc. 



440 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Cari Fructus 



N. Carum, Caraway. — 0. The fruits of Car am Carvi (Carui); 
Umbelliferce. — H. Europe and Northern Asia; wild and culti- 
vated. — D. Elongated or oblong, compressed from sides, about 




Fig. 376. 



3 to 4 mm. long, smooth, brown ; the two mericarps usually sepa- 
rate when ripe, and each of the fruits then curves towards the 
face at the top and base; each fruit has 5 obscure ridges, or 
rather angles, and 6 oil-tubes ; odor pleasantly aromatic and taste 
sweetish spicy. — C. About 4 to 6 per cent volatile oil, some fixed 
oil, resin, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant, stomachic; mainly 
Dose: 



used for flavoring. 



1 to 2 grams. 



Fceniculi Fructus 

N. Fceniculum, Fennel. — 0. The fruits of Fceniculum vulgare; 
Umbelliferce. — H. Western Asia and Europe. — D. Elongated or 




Fig. 377. 



oblong, nearly cylindrical, about 4 to 5 mm. long, smooth, 
brown; the two mericarps readily separate when ripe, but the 
separated fruits rarely curve inwards; each fruit has a broad, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 441 

flat, pale-brown face, with longitudinal striae, a curved back with 
5 angular, pale-brown ridges between which are dark brown 
grooves under which lie the oil-tubes, of which each fruit has 4 
on the back and 2 to 4 on the face; the odor is strongly aromatic 
and the taste sweetish aromatic. — 0. About 2.5 to 4 per cent vola- 
tile oil, some fixed oil, resin, etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant, 
stomachic ; mainly used for flavoring. Dose : 0.5 to 2 grams. 

Roman fennel, from Foeniculum dulce, is nearly twice as long as 
the above-described German fennel, and is lighter-colored, more 
or less curved, slender, with sharp ribs. It has a sweeter and 
finer aroma than the German variety, but contains less volatile 
oil. 

Petroselini Fructus 

N. Parsley Fruit. — 0. The fruits of Petroselinam sativum; 
Apium Petroselinum; TJmbellifercc. — H. Western Asia and Europe ; 




Fig. 378. 

cultivated generally. — D. Roundish-ovate, compressed from the 
sides, about 2 mm. long, smooth, grayish-green ; the two mericarps 
readily separate when ripe and dried ; each fruit has 5 thin, light- 
colored ridges on the back, and contains 6 oil-tubes; odor and 
taste aromatic. — C. About 1 to 3 per cent volatile oil, apiin, apiol, 
some fixed oil, resin, etc. — U. Carminative, diuretic, stimulant, 
aromatic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 

Anethi Fructus 

N. Anethum, Dill. — 0. The fruits of Anethum graveolens; Um- 
belliferce. — H. Western Asia and Europe ; cultivated generally. — 
D. Oval, compressed from back, about 3 to 4 mm. long, smooth, 
brown; the. two mericarps readily separate when ripe; each fruit 
has 6 oil-tubes and 5 ridges of which the two lateral ones are 



442 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



broad and thin, the others sharply angular ; odor and taste spicy, 
peculiar. — C. About 3 to 4 per cent volatile oil, some fatty oil, 




Fig. 379. 

etc. — U. Carminative, stimulant, stomachic ; frequently used for 
flavoring pickles, etc. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 

Apii Fructus 

N. Apium, Celery Seed. — 0. The fruits of Apium graveolens; 
Umbelliferce. — H. Western Asia and Europe; cultivated gener- 
ally. — D. Roundish-ovate, compressed from sides, about 1 mm. 
in length, broader than long, smooth, brown; the two mericarps 
are usually separated in the drug; each fruit has five ribs and 
from 12 to 16 oil-tubes; odor and taste aromatic, peculiar. — C. 
About iy 2 to 3 per cent volatile oil, apiol, some fixed oil, resin, 




Fig. 380. 

etc. — U. Emmenagogue ; carminative, stimulant, stomachic; used 
for flavoring. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 



Levistici Fructus 

N. Ligustici Fructus, Loveage Fruit, Loveage Seed. — 0. The 
fruits of Levisticum officinale (Ligusticum Levisticum) ; Umbelli- 
ferce. — H. Europe; cultivated in Germany. — D. Ovate-oblong or 
elliptic, flattened or compressed from back, about 4 to 5 mm. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



443 



long, yellowish-brown; in the drug the mericarps are usually 
separated; each fruit has five prominent ridges, the lateral ones 




Fig. 381. 



larger than the dorsal, and six oil-tubes; aromatic odor and 
taste. — C. Volatile oil, etc. — U. Aromatic stimulant, carminative, 
diaphoretic, emmenagogue. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams, best in in- 
fusion. 

Angelicae Fructus 

N. Angelica Fruit, Angelica Seed. — 0. and H. The fruits of 
Arch angelic a officinalis (Garden Angelica) ; Umbelliferce. This 
plant is a native of Northern Asia and Europe; cultivated. In 
America the similar fruit of Archangelica atropurpurca, which is 




Fig. 382. 

indigenous to the United States, is sometimes used as a substitute 
for the fruits of Garden Angelica. — D. Ovate or elliptic, flattened 
or compressed from back ; about 4 to 5 mm. long, yellowish ; in 
the drug the mericarps are usually separated; each fruit has three 
well-marked dorsal and two broad-winged lateral ridges and nu- 
merous oil-tubes; odor and taste aromatic. — C. Volatile oil. — 
U. Carminative stimulant; mainly used for flavoring. Dose: 0.5 
to 2 grnis. 



444 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Dauci Fructus 

N. Carota, Carotce Fructus, Carrot Fruit. — 0. The fruits of 
Daucus Carota; Umbelliferce. — H. Native of Asia and Europe; 
naturalized in North America ; cultivated.— D. Oval, flattened or 
compressed from back, about 4 mm. long, grayish-brown; fruits 




usually separated in the drug; each fruit has six oil-tubes and 
seven ridges, four of which are beset with bristly spines and the 
three intermediate ones with fine hairs; odor slightly and taste 
pungently aromatic. — C. Some volatile oil, fixed oil, etc. — U. 
Stimulant and diuretic. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams, best in infusion. 

GROUP LXIII 

Fleshy Fruits, or Berries, Dried or Prepared 

Drugs of this group and of Group LXIV, while botanically 
quite distinct, are not always easily differentiated, so that both 
groups must be considered together when trying to determine 
the identity of some unknown drug belonging here. 

A berry is a fleshy fruit in which the seed or seeds (usually 
more than one) are imbedded; it is often the product of a com- 
pound pistil. The peculiarity of the berry is, that the hardness 
of the seeds (when they are hard) is due to the hardening of the 
seed-coats, as in the grape. The ovary in the berry has matured 
into a more or less fleshy mass, the rind of which usually remains 
thin and delicate, as in the currant or tomato, but may be tough 
and leathery as in the orange or lemon, or even hard as in the 
gourds ; in the latter case the berry is designated as a pepo. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



445 



A drupe may resemble a berry very closely, and in fact, there 
seem to be transitional forms which it is difficult to place in either 
group without careful microscopical examination. The drupe is 
a fleshy, berry-like fruit in which the seed or seeds (usually only 
one) are imbedded, but the characteristic which distinguishes the 
drupe from the berry is, that while the outer and middle layers of 
the ovary develop into a more or less fleshy substance (sarco- 
carp) as in the berry, the inner layer of the ovary hardens into 
a " stone" (endocarp or putamen) in which the seed is contained, 




Fig. 384. 



and commonly this stony layer is considered as part of the seed, as 
in the peach or plum. 

If we carefully open or dissect the hard seed of a berry by re- 
moving the hard outer part, we find a naked embryo, or albumen 
containing the embryo, within ; while, if Ave carefully examine the 
hard l ' seed " of a drupe, we find that after removal of the stony 
part, the seed within still has its seed-coats. 

For example: Fig. 384 shows a microscopical section of a part 
of the fruit and seed of cubeb, the outer part of the fruit being 
above and the seed being below; in the drawing a shows a sec- 
tion of the fruit with sclerenchymatous cells or stone-cells of the 
inner layer of the fruit, and b shows the section of the seed; the 



446 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

star shows the seed-coats of the seed. In black pepper, which is 
very closely related, botanically, to cubeb, we find no such hard- 
ening of the inner layer of the fruit, although the inner layer is 
intimately blended or grown together with the seed-coats, and 
black pepper is therefore a berry while. cubeb is a drupe. 

While it is perfectly easy to determine in the case of large 
fruits of pronounced structure, as between raisins and prunes, 
which is a berry and which a drupe, it is difficult to decide this 
matter in case of small fruits like black pepper and cubeb, pi- 
mento or buckthorn berries, etc. ; and in fact, the latter, while 
called "berries" in the trade, are really compound drupes. 

For practical purposes, therefore, no sharp distinctions need 
be made between drugs of these two groups, but both groups 
should be considered together, although, for abstract scientific 
reasons, a distinction is here made. 

Juniperus, which is really a spurious fruit, or fleshy cone, be- 
longing in Group LXI and there described, may be supposed to 
belong among the berries, and be looked for here; it is there- 
fore mentioned. 

See also drugs of Group LXIV. 

Small, wrinkled, black berries, 3 to 4 mm. in diameter; 

pungently spicy Piper Nigrum. 

Oblong-conical, glossy red berry, about 2 cm. long; 

taste very hot Capsicum. 

Very light, spongy, white or yellowish-white, globular 

fruits, 5 to 10 cm. in diameter; very bitter Colocynthis. 

Soft, shriveled, flattened berries, brownish, translucent; 

very sweet TJvae Passae. 

Roughly granular, hard, grayish-brown berries with cir- 
cular scar at base Aurantii Fr. Immat. 

Small compound berries with 10 carpels, almost black; 

sticking together in lumps Phytolacca Fructus. 

Oval-oblong fruits, with 4-cleft calyx; odor clove-like. .Caryophylli Fructus. 
Small round fruit resembling a berry, about 5 mm. in 

diameter, brownish-black with bluish bloom Juniperus. 

Piper Nigrum 

N. Pepper, Black Pepper. — 0. The unripe fruit of Piper nig- 
rum; Piperacece. — H. Native of India (Malabar), but cultivated 
also in Sumatra, Borneo, Siam and other tropical countries. — D. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



447 



A globular berry, without stalk, 3 to 4 mm. in diameter, wrin- 
kled, brown to brownish-black, grayish-black or black; odor 
aromatic, taste pungently spicy. — C. About 1 to 2 per cent vola- 
tile oil, 4 to 6 per cent piperin, some resin, fat, etc. — U. Stimulant, 




Fig. 385. 

tonic, stomachic. Dose: 0.3 to 1.5 grams. Piperin is used as a 
febrifuge. Pepper is commonly used as condiment or spice. Fig. 
385 shows fruit of pepper in natural size, and one whole and 
one in section, enlarged. 

For White Pepper see Group LXV. 

Capsicum 

N. Capsicum, Cayenne Pepper, African Pepper, Bird Pepper, 
Chillies, Paprika. — 0. The fruit of Capsicum frutescens; Sola- 
nacece. — H. Native of tropical America; cultivated in tropical and 





Fig. 386. 



Fig. 387. 



sub-tropical countries. — D. Oblong-conical berry (Fig. 386) about 
IV2 to 2 cm. and up to 3 cm. long, broadest at base which has a 
persistent, cup-shaped, five-toothed caryx ; the fruit has glossy 
red or reddish-brown, leathery, somewhat translucent walls, and 



448 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



two cells containing numerous flat, kidney-shaped, yellowish 
seeds attached to a thick central placenta, as shown in the draw- 
ing of a longitudinal section; odor peculiar, taste intensely hot 
and spicy. — C. Capsaicin, fixed oil, resin, etc.- — U. Stimulant sto- 
machic condiment; externally a powerful rubefacient and coun- 
ter-irritant. Dose: 0.06 to 0.5 grams. 

Formerly the fruits of Capsicum annuum were used • they are 
much larger and of various shapes (see Fig. 387), nearly cylin- 
drical to subglobular or depressed; they are the "red peppers" of 
our markets and are used extensively for pickling and as condi- 
ment. By cultivation varieties have been produced which are 
quite mild in taste. A variety of red pepper, cultivated in Hun- 
gary, is called Paprika. 

Colocynthis 

N. Colocynth, Bitter Apple. — 0. The fruit of Citrullus (Cucumis) 
Colocynthis; Cucurbit acece. — H. Southwestern Asia and North- 





eastern Africa; cultivated especially in Greece and Spain. — D. 
The fruit is a gourd with a smooth, bright-yellow, leathery rind, 
which is removed when the fruit is gathered ; the drug consists of 
the light, spongy pulp with the enclosed seeds. Globular, about 5 
to 7 or even occasionally 10 cm. in diameter, white or yellowish- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



449 



white, light, spongy, porous, tough-elastic, with a three-cleft 
cavity within; easily breaks into three wedge-shaped pieces, each 
of which contains a large number of flat, ovate, yellowish or pale- 
brownish seeds near the outer rounded surface ; no odor, taste in- 
tensely bitter. — C. About 0.6 per cent colocynthin, 4 per cent bit- 
ter fatty oil, 13 per cent bitter resin, 14 per cent bitter extractive, 
etc. (According to another authority it contains as much as 14 
per cent of Colocynthin; they can hardly be referring to the 
same substance.) — U. Drastic hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 0.1 
to 0.3 gram. Should be used with caution, as it produces severe 
and almost poisonous effects when given in too large doses. Fig. 
388 shows a transverse section of colocynth ; Fig. 389 shows a 
section of the ovary of the flower, to give an idea of the real 
nature of the structure. 

Uvse Passae 

N. Passula majores, Raisins. — 0. The partially dried berry of 
Vitis vinifera; Vitacea . — H. The grapevine is a native of Western 
Asia; cultivated generally, but raisins are mainly produced in 




Fig. 390. 



Southern Europe and California, from light-colored (red or am- 
ber-colored) and very sweet varieties of grapes. — D. Shriveled, 
flattened, soft berries; brownish or yellowish-brown, translucent; 
odor aromatic and taste agreeably sweet. — C. Grape-sugar, potas- 
sium tartrate, calcium tartrate, malic acid, etc. — U. Nutritive, de- 
mulcent, slightly laxative; sometimes added to purgatives as a cor- 
rective. 

Raisins are not quite dried, but are preserved in their own 
sugar. 

The better kinds of raisins consist of the entire clusters of 



450 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

grapes. Inferior varieties consist of the berries separated from 
the stalks. 

A seedless variety of raisins is common in the trade. 

Passnla minores, "Corinthians," or Corinthian raisins (com- 
monly, but erroneously called currants) are the fruits of Vitis mi- 
nut a, native in Greece (and formerly plentiful near Corinth, whence 
the name) ; they are small, black, seedless, very sweet berries, which, 
when ripe, are gathered, dried, after which they are packed closely 
in magazines and preserved by a process resembling ensilage. They 
occur in the trade in agglutinated masses. 

Aurantii Fructus Immaturus 

N. Poma aurantii immatura, Aurantia immatura, Orange Ber- 
ries. — 0. The unripe fruits of Citrus vulgaris; Rutacem (Auran- 
tiacece. — H. Cultivated in subtropical countries. — D. Grlobular 
berries, averaging about 5 to 10 mm. in diameter, although both 




Fig. 391. 

smaller and larger ones occur, roughly granular on the surface 
from the dried-up oil-glands, grayish-brown to greenish-black 
externally and pale-brown within, with a circular scar at the 
base, and containing 8 to 10 very small and hollow cells with un- 
developed ovules along the central column ; odor aromatic, taste 
bitter and aromatic. — C. The bitter glucoside hesperedin, vola- 
tile oil, etc. — U. Bitter tonic, stomachic and stimulant. Mainly 
employed in combination with other aromatics and bitters. Dose: 
1 to 2 grams. 

Fig. 391 shows one berry in natural size, an enlarged drawing 
of a whole berry, and also one of a transverse section. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 451 

Phytolacca Fructus 

N. Poke Berry. — 0. The fruit of Phytolacca decandra; Phyto- 
laccaceas. — H. A common, coarse, North American weed; natural- 
ized in Europe.— D. The fruit is a compound berry of 10 carpels, 
each of which contains a small, black seed. Flattened or com- 
pressed globular, about 6 to 8 mm. in diameter and 5 mm. high, 




nearly circular almost black, with thin skin and juicy dark-red 
pulp; in the drug the berries are partially dried and usually ag- 
glutinated in masses ; no odor, taste sweet, slightly acrid. — C. 
Sugar, gum, resin, coloring matter, etc. — U. Alterative and anti- 
rheumatic. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. Fig. 392 shows the berry in 
natural size, whole and in vertical section, and in transverse sec- 
tion enlarged. 

Caryophylli Fructus 

AntJiophylli, or mother-cloves, are the partly developed berries 
of the clove-tree (see Clove, Group LIV). Oval, oblong, up to 3 




Fig. 393. 

cm. long and 6 to 8 mm. thick, with persistent four-toothed calyx, 
wrinkled, generally 1-celled and 1-seeded, grayish-brown; odor 
and taste like those of cloves, but Aveaker. — C. and U. Similar to 
those of cloves; used to adulterate powdered cloves. 

Juniperus has been described in Group LXI. 



452 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

GROUP LXIV 

Drupes, Dried or Prepared 

See the introductory remarks to Group LXIII, where the struc- 
ture of the drupe has been explained. 
See also drugs of Group LXIII. 

Globular, wrinkled, stalked, brownish-black drupe, 3 to 5 mm. 

diameter; odor and taste spicy. Cubeba. 

Oval, oblong or globular, bluish to blackish drupe, 3 to 4 cm. 

long; fruit-like odor and sweet taste Prunum. 

Oval, occasionally compressed, somewhat angular, brownish- 
black to bluish-black drupe, 1.5 to 3 cm. long and 1 to 1.5 
cm. in diameter Sabal. 

Roundish, wrinkled, blackish-brown drupe, about 6 mm. diam- 
eter ; odorless Cocculus. 

Obscurely lobed, wrinkled, black fruit with four brown seeds, 

5 mm. diameter; disagreeable odor, bitter taste Rhamni Fr. 

Globular drupe, 5 mm. diameter, with 4-toothed calyx, reddish- 
brown ; spicy Pimenta. 

Oval or subglobular drupe, 3 mm. diameter, densely hairy, 

crimson; taste acidulous Rhus Glabra. 

Kidney-shaped drupe with grayish-brown rind and black acrid 

juicy pulp Anacardium. 

Similar to last, but heart-shaped and darker brown Semecarpus. 

Cubeba 

N. Cubeb. — 0. The fruit of Piper Cubeba; Piperacew; gathered 
before it is quite ripe. — H. Java; cultivated. — D. A globular drupe 
about 3 to 5 mm. in diameter, contracted at the base into a stalk 




Fig. 394. 

4 to 6 mm. long, from Avhich reticulate wrinkles extend over the 
surface, and which cannot be separated from the fruit except by 
breaking it, gray, brown to blackish-brown externally, whitish 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 453 

within and with its one seed not united with the putamen; odor 
spicy, taste pungently aromatic. — C. Up to 15 per cent volatile 
oil, some resin, etc. — U. Stimulant blennorrhetic, diuretic, ex- 
pectorant. Dose: 1 to 8 grams. 

Fig. 394 shows a fruit in natural size, an enlarged view of 
one whole, one in transverse, and one in longitudinal section, and 
a drawing showing location of embryo. 

Prunum 

N. Prune. — 0. The prepared and partially dried fruit of any 
one of several varieties of the common plum, Prunus domestica; 
Rosacea. — H. Native of Western Asia, but cultivated generally; 
prunes are prepared in Southern Europe and California, — D. 




Fig. 395-A. 

Oval, oblong or globular, about 2.5 to 4 cm. long, shriveled and 
wrinkled, purplish-blue to black externally, with soft brownish 
pulp surrounding an ovate flat stone which encloses the seed; 
fruit-like odor and sweet acidulous taste. Fig. 395A shows a whole 
prune, its stone and the seed whole, and in transverse section. — 
C. Sugar, fruit acids, etc. — U. Nutritive, laxative, frequently used 
as a corrective with senna, but mainly as a food. 

Sabal 

N. Sabal, Saw Palmetto, Saw Palmetto Berries. — 0. The par- 
tially dried fruit of Serenoa serrulata; Palmacece. — H. Atlantic 
coast states of U. S., from S. Carolina to Florida. — D. Oval or 
ovoid-oblong drupe, irregularly shrivelled and angular, brown- 
ish-black to bluish-black, 1.5 to 2.5 cm. long and 1 to 1.5 cm. thick, 



454 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



outer skin thin and someAvhat oily, flesh soft and spongy, green- 
ish-yellow, glutamen thin and fragile, seed hard and dark brown ; 
taste sweetish, acrid and oily and odor aromatic. — C. Action de- 
pends upon a fixed oil, about iy 2 per cent.— U. Stimulant blen- 




Fig. 395-B. 

norrhetic in genito-urinary troubles; similar in action to copaiba 
and cubeb, but milder. Dose: 0.5 to 1.5 grams, best adminis- 
tered as fluid extract. 

Cocculus 

N. Cocculus Indicus; Fish-berry. — 0. The drupaceous fruit of 
Anamirta Cocculus; Menispermacece. — H. East India, Ceylon, Java, 
etc. — D. Obscurely kidney-shaped, roundish, about 8 mm. in di- 
ameter, wrinkled, apex and base near together, blackish-brown 
externally, reddish-brown within, the skin and pulp brittle, the 




Fig. 396. 

stone pale brown ; odorless, the fleshy part tasteless, but the seed 
bitter and poisonous. — C. Picrotoxin, resin, etc. — U. Sedative. 
Dose: 0.1 to 0.2 gram. 

It is called "fish-berry" because it is sometimes fed to fishes in 
bait to stupefy them, so that they may be more readily caught. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



455 



Rhamni Catharticae Fructus 

N. Buckthorn Berries. — 0. The drupaceous fruit of Bhamnus 
cathartica; Rhamnaceoe. — H. Northern temperate zone; indig- 
enous to the Eastern hemisphere, naturalized in America. — D. 
When fresh the fruit is round, supported on a circular disk, the 
parchment-like endocarp 4-celled (more rarely 2, 3 or 5-celled) 
and 4-seeded, black externally, greenish within; owing to the 
thin flesh this dries so that the Avhole fruit assumes the shape of 
the endocarp and appears lobed or furrowed; the dried fruit as it 
occurs in the drug is deeply wrinkled, about 5 mm. in diameter, 
with a fragile stalk, a brownish-green pulp, and with brown seeds 
that are triangular-rounded, with a deep furrow on the back so 




397. 



that a section of one appears horseshoe-shaped; faint but dis- 
agreeable odor and taste bitter and acrid. When chewed the 
fruits color the saliva greenish. — C. Rhamnocathartin, sugar, gum, 
etc. — U. Brisk hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best as 
fluid extract. 

Fig. 397 shows fruit and seed in natural size and enlarged, and 
in section. 

Pimenta 

N. Pimento, Allspice.— 0. The nearly ripe fruit of Pimenta of- 
ficinalis (Eugenia Pimenta); Myrtacece. — H. Indigenous to West 
Indies ; cultivated in tropical America and in India. — D. A 
globular or obscurely quadrangular drupe, about 5 mm. in di- 
ameter, surmounted by a four-toothed calyx and the remains 



456 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



of the style, warty granular, grayish or reddish-brown, 1 or 
2-celled, each cell containing one seed which is plano-convex 
when there are two in a fruit; odor and taste pungently spicy, 
resembling cloves. — -C. About 4 per cent volatile oil, some resin, 
etc. — U. Aromatic stimulant, mainly employed as a spice. Some- 




Fig. 398. 

times used as fluid extract in doses 0.5 to 2 grams. Also used 
whole in "hot spiced wine" (German: " Glueh-wein " ) . 

Fig. 398 shows the fruit and seed in natural size and enlarged, 
and in longitudinal and transverse sections. 

A variety of Eugenia (Myrtus) is indigenous to Mexico, Myrtus 
Tabasco; this plant furnishes a variety of allspice which is larger 
than the more common variety described above, but it is used for 
the same purposes as the latter. 

Rhus Glabra 

N. Rhois Glabra: Fructus, Sumach Berries. — 0. The drupaceous 
fruit of Rhus glabra; Anacardiacew. — H. North America. — D. Oval 




Fig. 399. 



or subglobular, about 3 mm. in diameter, bright crimson to 
brownish, densely hairy, containing an oblong-roundish, gray, 
hard stone surrounding the seed; no odor, taste acidulous. — C. 
Tannin, potassium malate, etc. — U. Slightly acidulous and refrig- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



457 



erant, and mildly astringent. Dose: 2 to 5 grams, best given in 
the form of fluid extract. The infusion is also used as a gargle. 
Fig. 399 shows a fruit in natural size and two, one from the 
side and one from the edge, enlarged; also, on the left, some of 
the hairs and glands, much enlarged. 

Anacardium 

N. Anacardium occidentals, Cashew Nut. — 0. The drupaceous 
fruit of Anacardium Occident ale ; Anacardiacece. — H. Indigenous to 




Fig. 400. 



tropical America; naturalized in Africa and the East Indies.— 
D. Shape and size are well shown in the drawings of Fig. 400. A 
kidney-shaped, grayish-brown drupe, 2 to 3 cm. long, about 2 
cm. broad and 6 to 8 mm. thick, glossy black, 1-celled and 1- 
seeded; this drupe resembles a nut because the outer part of the 
sarcocarp or flesh is hardened into a brittle rind (the exocarp) 




Pig. on. 



which is connected to the putamen or stone, but so that there are 
many cavities in this layer (the mesocarp) in which there is a 
black, acrid juicy pulp; the seed consists of two white cotyle- 
dons enveloped by brown seed-coats. — C. A yellowish, oily, acrid 



458 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

substance which is more vesicating than cantharides. The ker- 
nel contains a bland fixed oil. — U. The. kernel, raw or roasted, is 
edible. The pulp or juice is a local irritant; it is sometimes em- 
ployed to destroy warts and excessive granulation tissue. The 
oil has been used as a vermifuge in doses of 0.2 gram (3 drops). 
Anacardium orientale, Semecarpus, or Oriental Cashew Nut 
(from Semecarpus Anacardium; Anacardiacece), from East India, 
is heart-shaped, flattish, blackish-brown, but otherwise similar to 
the true cashew nut in its structure, constituents and properties. 
(See Fig. 401). 



GROUP LXV 

Parts of Fruits 

With three exceptions the drugs of this group consist mainly 
of the rinds of fruits. These exceptions are tamarinds, white 
pepper and pearled barley, the first being the inner pulp, fibers 
and seeds of a fruit with the hard external shell or rind removed, 
the second being a berry with the external pulpy flesh partly re- 
moved, but with some fibro-vascular bundles and dried pulp still 
adhering to the outer surface of the seed, and the third being a 
grain from which the hulls and outer portions were removed, the 
inner mealy part then polished. 

In regard to the rinds it is to be regretted that in Latin nomen- 
clature no difference is made between " barks" and "rinds," but 
that the word "cortex" is used for both ; while not likely to cause 
confusion, it is not as exact a use of words as is desirable in scien- 
tific work, and it would be better to use distinctive words when- 
ever possible. Possibly some variant of the word tegmen (used 
to designate the inner seed-coat) might by common consent be used 
for "rind," for instance: Tegmentum or tegumentum; in that case 
tegmen might still mean "seed-coat" and its meaning would not be 
interfered with by tegmentum meaning "fruit-coat." Strictly 
speaking, Union is the lemon tree; limonis cortex could therefore 
mean "the bark of the lemon tree" as well as "the peel of the 
lemon. ' ' Limonia is the lemon ; lemon peel therefore would, be bet- 
ter expressed by the Latin words limonice tegmentum. Similarly, 
Aurantii cortex literally translated, might be "bark of the orange 
tree." 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 459 

Brownish-black pulp mixed with tough fibers and 

glossy brown seeds; acidulous vinous odor Tamarindus. 

Globular, about 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, grayish- 
white; peppery taste Piper Album. 

Kind of fruit, in quarters, dirty brownish-green on 
outer and dirty white on inner surfaces; fra- 
grant Aurantii. Amari Cortex. 

Rind of fruit in spiral bands, dirty brownish-green 
on outer surface, with little whitish parenchyma 
on inner surface; fragrant Aurantii Amari Cortex. 

Rind of fruit, in quarters, orange-colored on outer, 

white on inner surfaces; fragrant Aurantii Dulcis Cortex. 

Rind of fruit in spiral bands, lemon-yellow on outer, 

white on inner surfaces; fragrant Limonis Cortex. 

Irregular leathery fragments of reddish-brown rind, 
some pieces with hard, long, tubular calyx, and 
most pieces with oval depressions on inner sur- 
face; no odor Granati Fructus Cortex. 

Fragments of fruit, hard brownish-gray rind, to the 
inner side of which dried pulp with seeds ad- 
heres ; no odor Belse Fructus. 

Hard, thick, deep brown rind, without adhering 
pulp, with remains of six-rayed stigma and of 
hard calyx; no odor Mangostana. 

Oval grains, about 3 to -i mm. long, yellowish-white, 
whiter at ends, yellowish-brown groove along- 
one side Hordeum Perlatum. 

Tamarindus 

N. Tamarind. — 0. The preserved pulp of the fruit of Tamarin- 
dus Indica; Leguminoscv. — H. East India, North Africa, West In- 
dies, etc. — D. The fruit is an indehiscent legume, up to 10 or 12 
cm. long, about 3 cm. broad and iy 2 cm. thick, Avith a brownish 
pulp and 3 to 12 seeds. The drug consists of the brownish to 
brownish-black pulp composed of parenchyma cells mixed with 
strong, branching, fibrous bundles, and flattish, subquadrangular, 
glossy brown seeds, each of which is enclosed in a tough mem- 
brane; fruity odor and sweetish acidulous taste; see Fig. 402, 
which shows seeds whole and in sections. — C. About 9 per cent 
citric acid, iy 2 per cent tartaric acid, 3 per cent bitartrate of 
potassium, some malic acid, 12 per cent sugar, pectin, gum, etc. — 



460 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



U. Tamarind pulp dissolved in water makes a pleasant, acidulous 
slightly laxative drink. Tamarinds are occasionally added to 




Fig. 402. 



other cathartics. Dose: 10 to 20 grams or more; practically ad 
lib itum. 

Piper Album 

N. White Pepper.-O. The -ripe seeds of Piper nigrum (see 
Piper nigrum, Group LXIII), with the inner portion of the 
fruit-pulp adhering, or "the ripe fruit of P. nigr. with the outer 
and middle layers of the fruit-pulp removed." The ripe berries 
of black pepper are soaked in water, after which they are dried 
in the sun and then gently rubbed between the hands to remove 




Fig. 403. 



the dark outer portion, but so that much of the soft white flesh 
of the berry remains adherent to the seed.— D. White pepper is 
globular, 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, dirty white to yellowish-brown, 
smooth, with about 10 veins (fibro- vascular bundles of the fleshy 
pulp) running from base to apex; the seed itself, after removal of 
the whitish remains of the fruit parenchyma, is reddish-brown 



HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 



461 



and contains a large albumen in which is imbedded the small 
embryo; odor, taste, constituents and uses like those of black pep- 
per, except, that it is less pungent and spicy. 

Fig. 403 shows one grain of white pepper enlarged. 

Aurantii Amari Cortex 

N. Aurantii Amari Tegmentum. Bitter Orange Peel. — 0. The 
rind of the fresh fruit of Citrus, Citrus Aurantium amara: Ruta- 




cece. (Aurantiacece) . — H. Cultivated in subtropical countries. — 
D. In spiral band ("ribbons") or in quarters; glandular and 
dark brownish-green externally, with a thin layer of white 
spongy parenchyma on the inner surface; odor fragrant, taste 
very bitter. — C. About 1 per cent volatile oil, a bitter principle 
hesperidin, etc. — U. Bitter tonic, stomachic, stimulant carmina- 
tive. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. 



462 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



The spiral bands (Fig. 404) are made by peeling with a knife 
and contain less of the spongy parenchyma than does the peel 
in quarters (Fig. 405). 

The best bitter orange peel is that obtained from the rather 
small fruit of a variety of orange grown on the Island of Cura- 
cao, in the West Indies. "Curacao Orange Peel" is shown in 
Fig. 405 ; it has externally a dirty green, internally a dirty whit- 
ish color. Next in quality is the peel from an orange grown in 
Southern France, which is said to be green when ripe. Much of 
the so-called "Curacao peel" sold in the trade is probably not 
from either of these sources, but from unripe oranges grown in 
Southern Europe. 

Aurantii Dulcis Cortex 

N. Aurantii Dulcis Tegmentum, Sweet Orange Peel. — 0. The 
rind of the fresh fruit of Citrus Aurantium sinensis; Butacece (Au- 




Fig. 406. 

rantiacece. — H. Cultivated in subtropical countries, Southern- 
Europe, West Indies, Florida, California, etc. — D. The rind of 
the fruit is usually removed in quarters and is glandular rough 
and orange yellow on the outer surface, whitish on inner surface ; 
a section shows intercellular oil-glands or spaces near the outer 
surface and a loose, spongy, white parenchyma (consisting of pe- 
culiar branched cells) within; odor fragrant, taste aromatic and 
slightly bitter.— C. Volatile oil, hesperidin (much less than in 
bitter orange peel), etc.— U. Stimulant carminative and sto- 
machic, but employed mainly as an excipient and flavoring agent. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Granati Fructus Cortex 



463 



N. Granati Fructus Tegmentum, Pomegranate Rind. — 0. The 
rind of the fruit of Punka Granatum; Punieacece. — H. Grows 
wild in Northern Africa and Southern Asia and Europe; culti- 
vated in all subtropical countries. — D. The illustration (Fig. 




Fig. 407. 



407) shows the fruit whole and in longitudinal section (with seeds 
removed), and two fragments as they are found in the drug, all 
natural size ; the rind occurs in irregular fragments from 1 to 2 
mm. thick, leathery, breaking with granular fracture, reddish- 
brown or brownish-red externally, lighter on the inner surface ; 
some of the pieces have the tubular persistent calyx attached and 



464 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



all are more or less marked on the inner surface with depressions 
caused by the seeds; without odor, taste astringent. — C. About 
28 per cent tannin.— U. Astringent. Used internally or locally 
as a gargle or wash, in diarrhoeas and relaxed conditions of the 
mucous membranes generally. Dose: 1 to 2 grams. 

Belae Fructus 



N. Bela y Bael Fruit, Bengal Quince. — 0. The unripe fruit of 
Aegle Marmelos; Rutacem (Aurantiacem). — H. Cultivated in East 




Fig. 408. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



465 



India. — D. The fruit is orange-shaped, 5 to 10 cm. in diameter, 
and about 10 to 12-celled, but as found in the trade it is broken. 
The drug consists of irregular fragments (see Fig. 408) ; the rind is 
about 2 to 3 mm. thick, smooth, hard, and broAvnish-gray exter- 
nally ; the dried pulp, which adheres to the rind, is hard, reddish- 
brown, whitish within, mucilaginous, acidulous, and encloses ob- 
long, flat, hairy seeds; no odor, taste slightly astringent. — C. A 
small quantity of tannin, some mucilage, sugar, etc. — U. Mildly 
astringent, aromatic and demulcent. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. 

Mangostanae Fructus 

N. Mangostance Fructus Tegmentum, Mangostana, Mangos- 
teen. 0. The rind of the fruit of Garcinia Mangostana; Gutti- 




Fig. 4<N. 



ferce. — H. East India. — D. The fruit is about the size and form 
of a small orange ; it is prepared for trade by breaking the fruit 
and removing the pulp from the pieces; the drug consists of ir- 
regular fragments of rind (see Fig. 409), about 5 to 6 mm. thick, 
hard and smooth, dark brown and mottled; some of the pieces 
have adhering remains of the persistent calyx, others have the 
remains of a prominent, thickened, radiate stigma; inodorous, 
taste astringent and bitter. — C. Tannin and a crystallizable bitter 
principle. — U. Powerfully astringent ; useful in diarrhoeas, dys- 
entery, etc. Dose: 1 to 5 grams. 



466 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Limonis Cortex 

N. Limonis Tegmentum, Lemon Peel. — 0. The rind of the fruit 
of Citrus medica Limonum; Butacece (Aurantiacece). — H. Culti- 
vated in subtropical countries. — D. In spiral ribbons or bands, 
resembling in shape the rind of the bitter orange figured above; 
as the rind of the lemon cannot be separated from the fruit ex- 
cept by peeling with a knife, lemon peel occurs only in this one 
form; the bands are thin, deep lemon-yellow, and glandular on 
the outer and whitish on the inner surface; odor fragrant and 
taste aromatic and somewhat bitter. For pharmacopoeial prep- 
arations this rind should be freshly grated, from the fresh 
fruit. — C. Volatile oil, hesperidin, etc. — U. Stimulant, carminative 
and stomachic, but employed mainly as an excipient and flavor- 
ing agent. 

Hordeum Perlatum 

Pearl Barley is the fruit of Hordeum distichum (nat. ord.; 
Graminacecf) deprived of the seed-coats. There are two varieties 



Q 



rt%VM£ 




Fig. 410. 

in the grocery trade ; in one the ends are rounded off and the seed- 
coats removed, so that the grains are ovate, whitish, mealy, with a 
groove on one side in which are remnants of the yellowish-brown 
seed-coats ; in the other the barley grain is probably cut in two and 
the fragments are then rounded, forming small, globular, white, 
mealy grains. Pearl Barley is used as an article of diet and to 
make demulcent drinks for the sick. Rarely used medicinally. 
The illustrations show both kinds of pearled barley in natural 
size, and one grain of each kind enlarged. 

SEEDS 

To understand the structure of seeds we must first consider the 
structure of ovules. In the drawings in Fig. 411 we see, on the 
left, a section of a straight (orthotropous) ovule, much enlarged, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



467 



in which a is the nucleus, b the inner and c the outer ovule-coats, 
cl the place of junction of nucleus, ovule-coats, and stalk, which is 
called chalaza; f is the orifice through which the end of the pollen- 
tube reaches the embryo sac ; the ovule may be sessile or it may 
have a stalk; this stalk, e, is called the funiculus. The figure on 
the right shows an inverted (anatropous) ovule, in which the fu- 
niculus is bent and united to one side of the ovule, the ridge thus 
formed being called the rhaphe or seam. When the ovule matures, 
after fertilization, it forms a seed; the nucleus becomes developed 
either into an embryo alone, or into an embryo imbedded in and 
surrounded by the albumen, also called endosperm or perisperm; 
in the first case the nourishment needed by the germinating 
plantlet is stored in the embryo or young plant itself and the 
kernel of such seeds consists mainly of the cotyledons, with the 





/ 

-c. 

\-h. 
.a 

Fig. 411. 

radicle and sometimes a more or less developed plumule ; in the 
second case the nourishment is in the albumen which surrounds 
the embryo. The ovule-coats develop into the seed-coats, which 
sometimes remain as separate coats, sometimes become united so 
as to apparently form only one coat. 

The growing seed obtains its nourishment from the placenta of 
the ovary (maternal organ) through the funiculus, and this funic- 
ulus of the plant is, therefore, analogous to the funiculus or um- 
bilical cord of the human or animal' embryo or foetus, which also 
unites the developing young to the tissues of the mother through 
the placenta. When the seed is ripe it separates from the funic- 
ulus and thereby from the maternal tissues, and at the point 
where the funiculus was attached a scar or mark is left which 
is called the hihtm, and which corresponds or is analogous to the 
navel of mammals. 



468 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Under the epidermis of the cotyledons of many seeds, as well 
as under the epidermis of young twigs, petioles and midribs of 
leaves, etc., we sometimes find a peculiar kind of cell and of tis- 
sue, as shown in Fig. 412. To support the tender epidermis there 
may be developed from the fundamental tissue certain hard- 
walled cells, as for instance the sclerenchymatous cells under 
the epidermis of sarsaparilla root, or the stone cells which con- 
stitute the outer layer of the middle bark of cinnamon, or the 
sclerenchymatous cells under the epidermis of the fruit of cubeb. 
But in some cases, especially in the positions referred to above, 
the Avails of such supporting cells for the epidermis become 
thickened very much in the angles of the cells and but little else- 




Fig. 412. 

where ; these cells are called collenchymatous cells and the tissue 
formed by them constitutes collenchyma or collenchymatous tissue. 
This kind of cell and tissue is, however, of quite subordinate im- 
portance to the pharmacognosist, but may sometimes help in recog- 
nizing powdered seeds, or powdered leaves. 



GROUP LXVI 

Whole Seeds 

The presence or absence of albumen in the seeds is made the 
basis for dividing seeds into groups by many of the authors on 
pharmacognosy; the first figure, on the left, shows a section of 
pumpkin seed, the second, the embryo of the same seed both in 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



469 



natural size, showing that the embryo occupies all the space 
within the seed-coats; the figure on the right shows a section of 
colchicuni seed, much enlarged, in Avhich the small embryo (6) is 
seen in the large mass of albumen (a). 

We will make this a subordinate basis of grouping seeds, but 
without placing much stress on the subject; we will base our 
main division on the size of seeds, and while this may be con- 
sidered less ''scientific" by some, it Avill be found to be more 
practical because it makes the recognition of seeds easier and 
more certain ; and in a case of this kind mere abstractly scientific 
considerations should be subordinated to considerations of prac- 
tical utility. 

We, therefore, divide seeds into subgroups, as follows : Large, 
more than about 15 mm. long; medium-sized, less than about 15 




Fig. 413. 



mm. and more than about 5 mm. long; and small, less than about 
5 mm. long. Each of these subgroups is again divided: (1) With 
icell-marked albumen, and (2) with little or no albumen. 



Large . 



IT ell- marked albumen 



Little or no albumen < 



Myristica, Nux vomica, 
Ignatia, Areca. 

Amygdala, Physostigma, 
Theobroma, Dipterix, 
Citrullus, Pepo, 
Strophantus. 



Medium-sized 



Well-marked albumen 



fCaffea, Staphisagria, 
) Sabadilla. 



fCydonium, 
Little or no albumen -\ Cucumis, 
LAbrus. 



470 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Small. 



Well-marked albu men 



Little or no albumen < 



Cardamomi Semen, 
Colchici Semen, 
Stramonii Semen, 
Hyoscyami Semen, 
Lobeliae Semen, 
Papaveris Semen, 
Delphinium, 

(Piper Album). 

Linum, Sinapis Nigra, 

Sinapis Alba, 
Rapae Semen, 
Fcenum Grsecum. 



In examining drugs of this group we must bear in mind, how- 
ever, that quite a number of the drugs of Group LXII (dry fruits) 
are called " seeds" in the trade, such as the cremocarps ("anise- 
seed," "caraway-seed," etc.), "canary-seed," "hemp-seed," and 
others ; most of these are readily recognized as fruits and there- 
fore do not belong here. Both names and appearance of San- 
tonica and Chenopodium (both "worm-seeds" in the trade) may 
mislead and some might look in this group to find them ; Santon- 
ica was described in Group LII, and Chenopodium in Group 
LiVL The spores of Lycopodium are sometimes called "semen 
lycopodii, " but in this case only the name is misleading, for the 
drug cannot be mistaken for seeds. 



Large Seeds 

With well-marked albumen 

Oval, about 2.5 cm. long, netted-veined, with white 

markings from lime-dust, marbled within Myristica. 

Eound, flat, disk-like seeds, up to 2.5 cm. in diameter 

and 4 mm. thick; gray and very hard Nux Vomica. 

Irregularly ovate and angular, about 3 cm. long, brown- 
ish-black and very hard Ignatia. 

Short rounded cone with flattened base; about 2.5 cm. 
long; brownish with network of reddish veins; 
heavy, hard Areca. 

Little or no albumen; two cotyledons 
Ovate, flattened, pointed above, obtuse below; 2 to 2.5 
cm. long; externally brown, white within; agree- 
able nut-like taste Amygdala Dulcis. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 4J1 

Appearance like last, but taste bitter with flavor of oil 

of bitter almonds Amygdala Amara. 

Oblong, somewhat kidney-shaped. 2.5 to 3 cm. long; 
chocolate-brown, with broad black groove on con- 
vex side = Physo stigma. 

Oval, about 2 to 2.5 cm. long; with thin, fragile, reddish- 
brown shell Theobroma. 

Oblong, -4 to 5 cm. long; blackish-brown, wrinkled; odor 

vanilla-like Dipterix. 

Oval, flat, about 1.5 cm. long; black, brownish-black or 

pale yellowish-brown with black edges Citrullus. 

Oval, flat, about 2 cm. long; whitish Pepo. 

Oblong-lanceolate, obtusely two-edged, 1.5 to 2.5 cm. 

long; grayish -green, silky hairy Strophanthus. 

Medium-sized Seeds 

With well-marked albumen 

Plano-convex, oval, grooved on flat side; about 1 em. 

long; greenish-brown Caffea. 

Flattish-tetrahedral, about 5 to 7 mm. long, externally 

reticulately ridged; brownish Staphisagria. 

Lanceolate, angular, about G mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. 

thick at thickest end; glossy brownish-black; often 

mixed with the 3-celled capsules Sabadilla. 

Li-ttle or no albumen; two cotyledons 

Ovate or ovate-oblong, triangularly compressed, about 8 

mm. long; brown, with grayish epithelial scales; 

mucilaginous Cydonium. 

Oblong-lanceolate, flat. thin, sharply two-edged, about 

10 to 12 mm. long; whitish Cucumis. 

Subglobular, about 6 to 8 mm. in diameter; scarlet-red 

with black spot Abrus. 

Small Seeds 

Well-marked albumen, 

Angular, often adhering to one another; about 3 mm. 

long; brownish-yellow Cardamom! Semen. 

Obovate or nearly globular, finely pitted, 1 to 2 mm. in 

diameter; reddish-brown Colchici Semen. 

Kidney-shaped, flattened, pitted, about 3 mm. long; 

brownish-black Stramonii Semen. 

Kidney-shaped, flattened, reticulately wrinkled, 1 to 1.5 

mm. long; gray or yellowish-gray Hyoscyami Semen. 

Very small seeds, about 0.75 mm. long, oblong, reti- 
culated, brownish; acrid Lobeliae Semen. 



472 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Kidney-shaped, reticulately wrinkled, pitted, about 1 

mm. long; yellowish-white Papaveris Semen. 

Angular, obscurely tetrahedral, roughly nodulated or 

warty, about 1.5 to 2 mm. long; black Delphinium. 

Globular, about 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, grayish or dirty 

white; peppery taste Piper Album. 

Little or no albumen; two cotyledons 

Oblong-ovate, flattened, 4 to 5 mm. long; glossy brown. .Linum. 
Almost globular, finely pitted, with circular hilum; about 

1 mm. in diameter; reddish-black Sinapis Nigra. 

Almost globular, finely pitted, with circular hilum; about 

1.5 to 2 mm. in diameter; yellowish Sinapis Alba. 

Almost globular, nearly smooth ; about 2 to 2.5 mm. in 

diameter; bluish or brownish-black Rapae Semen. 

Oblong, angular, almost cubical, with a projection on one 

side; about 3 to 4 mm. long and about 2 mm. broad; 

brownish Fcenum Graecum. 



Myristica 

N. Nux Moschata, Nutmeg. — 0. The kernel of the seed of 
Myristica fragrans; Myristicacece. It is more correct to call this 




Fig. 414. 

the kernel of the seed than to call it seed, because the external 
stony testa or seed-coat is removed before the drug is sent into 
trade. — H. India, Philippine, Molucca and Banda Islands, West 
Indies, South America; cultivated. — D. Fig. 414 shows whole nut- 
meg, and transverse section of same, both in natural size. Round 
or oval, 2 to 2.5 cm. long, externally brownish, reticulately 
wrinkled, sometimes with the depressions of these wrinkles filled 
with white lime dust, with a circular depression at apex and a 
whitish nipple-like projection at base, from which the depressed 
wrinkles radiate; internally fatty, pale yellowish-brown mar- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 473 

bled with dark brown markings due to folds or indentations of 
the inner seed-coat ; consists mainly of albumen, with a small and 
often undeveloped embryo in a cavity near the base ; odor fra- 
grant, taste aromatic and somewhat bitter. — C. 2 to 4 per cent 
volatile oil, 25 to 35 per cent fixed oil, besides starch, etc. — U. A 
spicy and stimulant carminative and stomachic; mainly used 
merely as a flavor or spice. Dose: 0.5 to 1.5 grams. 

Prime nutmeg should be about 2.5 cm. long, heavy, sound, 
and strongly fragrant. 

Varieties: Limed or Dutch nutmegs are covered with a white 
powder, having been dipped into milk of lime, presumably to pro- 
tect them against injury by insects. 

Penang and Singapore nutmegs are darker-looking, not having 
been treated with lime. 

A false or wild nutmeg is said sometimes to occur, but it may 
readily be distinguished from the genuine by its greater length 
and less thickness. The writer has seen it as a separate article of 
trade, but has never seen any mixed with the genuine. 

Nux Vomica 

N. Nux vomica, Quaker Buttons. — 0. The seeds of Strychnos 
Nux-vomica; Logan iacea. — H. East India and East Indian 
Islands. — D. The illustrations show a whole seed, with excep- 
tionally prominent rhaphe, and transverse and flat sections, all 
natural size. Orbicular, flat, disk-like seeds, up to 2.5 cm. in 
diameter, depressed near the middle and thickened about the 
margin, with a rather obscurely marked rhaphe running from the 
center of one side to the margin, beneath which latter point the 
radicle of the embryo is situated; grayish or greenish-gray with 
silky luster from minute soft hairs; the interior consists of a 
grayish-white, somewhat translucent, horny, exceedingly tough 
albumen with a large but very shallow central cavity into which 
the cotyledons of the embryo project ; odor none, taste intensely 
and persistently bitter. — C. From 1.9 to 2.1 per cent alkaloids, 
of which one-half is strychnine, the other half being brucine, some 
fixed oil, etc. — U. In small doses a bitter tonic, in somewhat 
larger but still medicinal doses a motor excitant, useful in paral- 
yses, especially when due to peripheral causes, from disuse of 
muscles, as in a fractured limb after the bandages are removed, 



474 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



or when following diphtheria, etc. ; in paralyses due to central or 
brain lesions, nux vomica or its preparations are of less benefit. 
Dose: 0.05 to 0.3 gram, in tincture, extract or fluid extract. The 
drug is most frequently administered in the form of strychnine, 
of which the dose is from 1 to 3 milligrams (0.001 to 0.003 
gram ) . 

Poisonous Effects: When given in excessive doses nux vomica 
(or strychnine) is a poAverful poison, acting on the spinal cord 
and nerves and causing violent tetanoid contractions of the 
muscles. If death occurs it is due to asphyxia, owing to the in- 
ability of the patient to exhale, the muscles of respiration remain- 
ing fixedly contracted. Antidotal treatment consists in prompt 
evacuation of the stomach and the administration of chemical 
and physiological antidotes. The best chemical antidote is potas- 




Fig. 415. 



sium permanganate, the solution of Avhich should be freely given; 
tannic acid has also been recommended. As physiological anti- 
dotes, ether, chloroform, bromide of potassium, amyl nitrite, etc., 
have been recommended. . Violent depressants, such as tobacco, 
etc., are also physiological antidotes, but if used at all must be 
given with great caution. 

Ignatia 

N. Ignatia, St. Ignatius' Bean. — O. The seeds of Strychnos 
Ignatii; Loganiacece. — H. Philippine Islands. — D. Fig. 416 shows 
a whole seed, and longitudinal and transverse sections of same, 
all in natural size. The seeds ,are irregularly ovate and angular, 
2.5 to 3 cm. long by about 2 cm. broad and 1.5 cm. thick, dull 
brownish-black, very hard, slightly translucent when fresh but 
becoming more opaque with age; hilum near one end along mar- 
gin; the light-brownish albumen, which constitutes most of the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



475 



contents of the seed, has a large but shallow cavity into which the 
cotyledons of the embryo project ; odor none, taste intensely and 
persistently bitter. — C. Same as in mix vomica, but both strych- 
nine and brucine are present in greater proportion, 1 to 1.5 per 




Fig. 416. 

cent of each; also some fix^d oil, etc. — U. Same as of nux vom- 
ica, but the dose is only about half as large ; seldom used, except 

for the manufacture of strychnine. 

Areca 

N. Areca Nut, Betel Nut. — 0. The seed of Areca Catechu; 
Pahnacece. — H. India. — D. Fig. 417 shows a whole seed, a, and 
the base with hilnm, etc., to the right in natural size; transverse 
section (middle drawing) somewhat enlarged. Areca nut con- 
sists mainly of albumen, the small embryo being imbedded within 
this just over the round spot on the base; the seed has the shape 
of a short, rounded cone, about 2.5 to 3 cm. long, Avith a flat- 
tened base having a depressed center ; the outer coat is brownish. 




covered with a net-work of reddish veins which penetrate into the 
white albumen of the seed, giving a section an appearance some- 
what like that of nutmeg ; the seed is heavy, hard, dense, and 
difficult to cut or break ; when freshly broken the fragments have 



476 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

a cheese-like odor, taste astringent. — C. About 15 per cent tannin 
resembling that of catechu; about 14 per cent fixed oil, etc.; the 
seed also contains some constituent which renders the fluid ex- 
tract liable to gelatinize. — U. Astringent and anthelmintic or 
tagnicide; dose: 15 to 20 grams, best as fluid extract. In Oriental 
countries it is chewed, as tobacco is in our country ; for that pur- 
pose it is mixed with the leaves of the Betel pepper and lime, 
and is known as Betel. 

A charcoal made of areca nuts is used as a dentifrice. 

Amygdala Amara 

N. Bitter Almond. — 0. The seeds of Primus Amygdalus (Amyg- 
dalus communis), var. amara; Rosacece. — H. Cultivated in South- 
ern Europe. — D. Closely resemble sweet almonds in appearances, 
which see for description and illustrations. Bitter almonds aver- 
age a little shorter and a little thicker than sweet almonds ; taste 
bitter, with a flavor of peach kernels. — C. By expression bitter 
almonds yield from 30 to 50 per cent of a sweet, bland, fixed oil, 
identical with that obtained in the same manner from sweet al- 
monds; between 20 and 30 per cent of a peculiar albumen which 
is called emulsin, and which is capable of emulsifying the oil in 
the seeds when the latter are triturated with water ; also from 1 to 3 
per cent of amygdalin, a substance which is peculiar to the bitter 
almonds and is not found in sweet almonds ; by the reaction of 
emulsin on amygdalin in the presence of water, oil of bitter al- 
mond and hydrocyanic acid are produced. — U. Bitter almonds 
are only used for flavoring, the sedative effects of the hydrocy- 
anic acid being more reliably obtained from dilute hydrocyanic 
acid properly diluted. Bitter almonds are poisonous in large 
doses. 

Amygdala Dulcis 

N. Sweet. Almond. — O. The seeds of Primus Amygdalus dulcis 
(Amygdalus communis, var. dulcis); Rosacece. — H. Cultivated in 
Southern Europe. — D. Fig. 418 shows an almond in the shell, a 
seed removed from the shell, and a transverse section of the lat- 
ter; sweet almonds should be large, sound, clean, whole, and per- 
fectly white within. The seeds are ovate or oblong-lanceolate, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



477 



nattish, about 2.5 cm. long, yellowish-brown covered with lines 
radiating from a scar at the thick end ; the white and oily embryo 
consists of two plano-convex cotyledons with a short radicle at 
the pointed end, and usually a small plumule between the cotyle- 
dons; no odor, taste sweetish, bland, nut-like. — C. Same as of 
bitter almonds except that they contain no amygdalin. An emul- 
sion of sweet almond does not have the odor of hydrocyanic acid; 
any such odor would prove the admixture of bitter almonds. — 
U. Nutrient. By triturating with water an emulsion is obtained 
which is an agreeable vehicle for the administration of other rem- 
edies. This emulsion is preferably made from blanched almonds. 
Blanched almonds are prepared by putting the almonds in luke- 
warm water for a short time, when the seed-coats swell and sepa- 




Fig. 418. 



rate from the embryo, so that they can then be readily removed ; 
hot water will separate the seed-coats more rapidly, but it may 
alter the emulsin, so that merely warm water should be preferred 
for blanching almonds. 

Physostigma 

N. Physostigma, Calabar Bean. — 0. The seeds of Physostigma 
venenosum; Leguminosce. — H. Western Africa, near the mouth of 
the river Niger. — D. Fig. 419 shows the whole bean and a trans- 
verse section, all in natural size. Oblong, kidney-shaped, about 
2 to 3 cm. long, hard, externally smooth, glossy chocolate-brown 
or grayish-brown, with a broad and deep reddish-black groove, 
the hilum, along the convex edge; the embryo consists of two 
white concavo-convex cotyledons with a short radicle, so that the 



478 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



seed is hollow within ; odorless and nearly tasteless.- — C. Physo- 
stigmine or eserine, calabarine, etc. It should yield not less than 
0.15 per cent of alkaloids. — U. Motor depressant, sedative, in 
large doses poisonous; mainly used locally in eye-troubles, to 
contract pupil. Dose: 0.06 to 0.25 gram of the powder, or cor- 
responding doses of the fluid extract or tincture ; the dose of the 
solid extract is about 0.008 gram. 

The antidotal treatment in cases of poisoning by calabar bean 
consists in evacuating and washing the stomach, and administer- 
ing atropine in doses of about 0.001 gram. 

Some years ago mention was made of a somewhat different va- 
riety which had been found as an admixture with this drug; it 
was called Physostigma cylindrospermum and was said to differ 




Fig. 419. 

mainly in being considerably longer and having a shorter hilum. 
In some of the more recent works all mention of this admixture is 
omitted, so that it probably no longer occurs. 



Theobroma 

N. Cacao, Cocoa, Chocolate Bean. — O. The seeds of Theobroma 
Cacao; Stercidiacece. After gathering, the seeds are cured by a 
process of partial fermentation by being laid in heaps on the 
ground, covered with leaves during the night but exposed to the 
sun by day, or by being packed in barrels or buried in pits in the 
ground for a few days, after which they are spread out and dried. 
By this process the bitter taste of the fresh seeds is removed. — 
H. Tropical America; cultivated in all tropical countries. — D. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



479 



Fig. 420 shows the seeds ; a, side; b, edge ; c, outer and d, inner sur- 
faces of cotyledons ; e, tranverse section. Oval, compressed, about 2 
to 2.5 cm. long, reddish-brown or grayish-brown, with numerous 
veins; hilum at the broad end, from which a line runs along the 
more convex border of the seed to the narrow end, where the 
chalaza is situated; shell thin and fragile, embryo reddish-brown, 
the two cotyledons irregularly ribbed, or ridged, brittle and oily; 




Fig. 420. 

taste oily and aromatic. — C. About 1 to 1.5 per cent theobromin, 
about 50 per cent fixed oil (butter of cacao), starch, etc. — U. 
The whole seeds roasted and ground fine are used to make cho- 
colate; the seeds deprived of most of the fixed oil and ground 
fine are used to make "cacao" or "cocoa," a drink similar to 
chocolate, but less rich and considered more digestible. 



Dipterix 

N. Tonka, Tonco, Tonka Bean. The word "tonco" or "tonka" 
is indeclinable and neuter. — 0. The seeds of Dipterix odorata and 
D. oppositifolia; Leguminosce. — H. Guiana, in Northeastern part 
of South America. — D. Fig. 421 shows a large seed of "Dutch 
Tonka," whole, and with a part of one cotyledon cut away to 
show radicle and plumule, both natural size. Oblong, somewhat 
compressed or flattened, 4 to 5 cm. long and up to 15 mm. 
broad; externally blackish-brown, wrinkled, sometimes covered 
with minute, white, acicular crystals of coumarin; internally 
pale-brown, oily; odor fragrant, taste aromatic bitter. — C. The 
pleasant aroma, which reminds of vanilla, is due to coumarin, a 
neutral -principle which is soluble in fats, alcohol, diluted alco- 
hol, but only slightly in water ; tonka also contains about 25 per cent 



480 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



fixed oil, sugar, mucilage, etc. — U. Mainly used for flavoring, as 
a cheap substitute for vanilla. 

Dutch tonka beans (from D. odoraia) are the best; thev are 




Fig. 421. 

larger, plumper and more frequently covered with coumarin crys- 
tals than English tonka beans (from D. oppositifolia). 

Citrullus 

N. Citrulli Semen, "Watermelon Seed. — 0. The seeds of C neu- 
ritis (Cucurbit a) Citrullus; Cucurbit acem. — H. Cultivated gen- 
erally. — D. Fig. 422 shows seed whole, from side and edge, in 
transverse section, and embryo, all natural size. Ovate, flat, 
about 12 mm. long, blackish, blackish-brown or pale-brown with 
black edges; the embryo consists of two white plano-convex 




cotyledons and a small radicle; odorless, taste insipid. — C. No 
satisfactory analysis; about 30 per cent fixed oil, etc. — U. Diu- 
retic, demulcent and anthelmintic. Dose, in infusion, practically 
ad libitum. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



481 



Pepo 

N. Peponis Semen, Pumpkin Seed. — 0. The seeds of Cucurbita 
Pepo; Cucurbitacece. — H. Cultivated. — D. Fig. 423 shows seed, 
transverse section of same, and embryo, all natural size. Oval 
or ovate, flat, about 12 to 20 mm. long, whitish ; inodorous, 




Fig. 423. 

taste insipid. — C. About 30 to 40 per cent fixed oil, resin, pro- 
teids, starch, sugar, etc. — U. Taenifuge; best given by beating 
the embryos to a pulp with sugar and making an emulsion which 
is to be taken without straining; or the seeds may be eaten raw 
like nuts. Dose: 25 to 75 grams. 

Strophanthus 

N. Strophanthus Seed. — 0. The seeds of Strophanthus Kombe 
and 8. hispidus; Apoeynacece. — H. Tropical Africa. — D. Fig. 424 
shows a whole seed deprived of its awn, as it comes into the 
trade; also, the kernel consisting of a sac-like albumen which 
envelops the embryo, the embryo separate, and a transverse sec- 
tion of the seed, all natural size. The seeds grow in pods and 




Fig. 424. 



each seed is provided with an awn up to 10 cm. long with a tuft 
of delicate white silky hair covering its upper half ; this awn and 
tuft of hairs is not present in the drug. The oblong-lanceolate 
seeds vary in length and are from 19 to 20 mm. long, 3 to 5 mm. 



482 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

wide, and about 2 mm. thick, tapering towards both ends, usu- 
ally flat, but sometimes rounded, brittle, easily broken, yellow- 
ish-brown with occasionally a greenish tint, and covered with 
appressed silky hairs; the white embryo consists of a radicle 
and two straight thin cotyledons and is enclosed in a Avhite sac- 
like albumen; no odor, taste very bitter.— C. Strophanthm.— U. 
Used in Africa to make an arrow poison; in medicine, as a heart 
sedative; in overdoses it is a powerful poison, paralyzing the 
respiratory muscles as well as the heart. The dose is uncertain, 
but may be stated to be from 5 to 10 minims of a 5 per cent 
tincture. 

The seeds of Str. hispidus and Str. dichotomies are more chest- 
nut-brown and less hairy; the seeds of Kicksia Africana are 
pointed at both ends and the cotyledons are irregularly folded. 
If a thin section of the true Kombe seed is placed on a microscope 
slide and a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid is added, the al- 
bumen or endosperm (and if the seeds are rich in strophanthin, 
the embryo also) will be colored intensely green, which can be 
easily seen with a Coddington lens. 

Caffea 

N. CaffecB Fabce, Coffece Semen, Coffee. — 0. The seeds of Cof- 
fea Arabica; Rubiacece. — H. Cultivated in most tropical and 
subtropical countries. — D. Fig. 425 shows the whole seeds or 
beans, face and back, in natural size, and a transverse section 
showing the infolding of the seed-coats, enlarged; also a more 
highly magnified section of the seed-coats. Coffee beans are 
plano-convex, oval, with a groove the entire length of the flat 
surface, 8 to 12 mm. long, greenish or bluish-brown; the bean 
consists mainly of a tough albumen, in one end (base) of which 
a small di-cotyledonous embryo is situated; odor peculiar, faint 
before roasting, taste bitter and astringent. — C. About 0.8 to 1 
per cent caffeine, caffeo-tannic acid, etc. — U. Tonic and stimu- 
lant. Infusion of coffee is used as a daily drink by a large por- 
tion of the human race ; it moderates Avaste, improves digestion, 
produces mental exhilaration and physical activity. No dose 
of this drug can be stated as it is habitually used in widely 
varying quantities by different persons. In opium poisoning 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



483 



large quantities of strong infusion of coffee should be given. 

Mocha Coffee, grown in Arabia, consists of very small beans of 
a dark color, very plump. It has a fine flavor and is much es- 
teemed, and is often added to other kinds of coffee to improve 
the flavor of the infusion. 

Rio Coffee (South American or Rio Janeiro) is also compara- 
tively small and dark-colored, but not so plump as Mocha, and 
has, when prepared for use, a stronger and less delicate flavor 
than other kinds of coffee. 

Java Coffee, with large, flattish, light-colored beans, has a fine, 
delicate flavor. 

Liberia (African) Coffee, which has the largest seeds of all, is 
also light-colored and has a fine flavor. 

These different varieties are seldom employed separately, but 
are usually mixed in various proportions by the experts of the 




Fig. 425. 

large coffee houses, to produce the so-called "blends" which are 
generally preferable to any one kind alone. For use, coffee must 
be roasted or parched; this should be done as rapidly as pos- 
sible without burning the coffee, until the seeds are fully brown 
but not black. The peculiar aroma is produced by this parch- 
ing, so that if coffee is insufficiently parched it will produce a 
disagreeable, insipid and somewhat bitter infusion, while if it is 
parched too much, it acquires an empyreumatic and bitter flavor. 



Staphisagria 

N. Stavesacre. — 0. The seeds of Delphinium Staphisagria; 
Ranunculacece. — H. Mediterranean countries. — D. Fig. 426 shows a 
seed in natural size and enlarged. Irregularly tetrahedral, flat- 
tish, angular, 5 to 7 mm. long, externally brownish or brownish- 



484 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



gray, with reticulate ridges ; the whitish oily albumen contains a 
small embryo at one end; odor slight, taste bitter and acrid. — C. 
Delphinine (delphisine), delphinoidine, staphisain, fixed oil, etc. — 




Fig. 426. 

U. Staphisagria is said to possess diuretic, cathartic and emetic 
properties. Its principle use is local, to destroy parasites and 
vermin. 

Sabadilla 

N. Cevadilla. — 0. The ripe seeds of Schcenocaulon officinale 
(Asagrcea officinalis) ; Liliacece. — H. Mexico and Central America. — 
D. Fig. 427 shows a capsule and seed of cevadilla in natural size and 
a capsule and transverse section of same, and a seed and longitu- 
dinal section of same, enlarged. The drug consists of opened 
and unopened capsules or follicles mixed with the loose seeds, 
but when wanted for use the follicles should be rejected. The 
thin brown follicles adhere to each other at the base and each 




Fig. 427. 



contains from 1 to 6 seeds; the seeds are lanceolate, angular, 
about 6 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. thick at the thickest end, glossy 
brownish-black, with thin and finely wrinkled seed-coat; the 
white oily albumen contains a small embryo near the base; the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 485 

seeds, which alone contain the active constituents, are inodor- 
ous, but have an acrid, persistent, bitter taste. — C. The alkaloids 
veratrine, cevadine, cevadilline, etc. — U. The seeds are poison- 
ous. The action depends on the veratrine which they contain. 
Mainly used for the manufacture of veratrine and externally in 
ointment as a parasiticide to destroy lice and other vermin, and 
as a cure for itch. 

When taken internally it is a powerful irritant depressant; 
its dose should not exceed 0.05 to 0.1 gram, but its value as a 
remedial agent is doubtful and the possibility of untoward re- 
sults so great that it is better to choose other remedies. In case 
of poisoning, the antidotal treatment consists in evacuating and 
washing the stomach, giving tannic acid and stimulants, such 
as coffee, alcohol, etc., and applying warmth externally. 

Cydonium 

N. Quince Seed. — 0. The seeds of Cydonia vulgaris (Pyrus 
Cydonia); Rosacea:. — H. Cultivated. — D. The seeds resemble 
apple seeds, but in the fruit they are agglutinated as repre- 
sented in Fig. 428, o, and they often remain so in the drug; a 
shows a seed in natural size, c the same enlarged, and d a section 
of the seed-coats showing the outer epidermal cells Avhich con- 




Fig. 428. 

tain the mucilage. The seeds are ovate or ovate-oblong, tri- 
angularly compressed, about 8 mm. long, grayish-brown; the 
white embryo consists of two cotyledons and a radicle; the whole 
seeds are odorless, but when chewed the embryo develops the 
odor and taste of bitter almonds. — C. The only important con- 
stitutent is the mucilage in the epithelium of the seed-coats; 



486 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

when the whole seeds are placed in water they swell, forming an 
insipid, clear mucilage. — U. The mucilage is used as a demul- 
cent vehicle for other remedies, for similar purposes as the mu- 
cilage of sassafras pith or of acacia. It must be freshly made 
when wanted. 

Quince seeds must be clean, whole, sound and odorless; they 
are sometimes mixed with apple or pear seeds in the drug, but 
the latter adulterations can be recognized by their smooth oval 
form, their glossy brown color and by the fact that they do not 
produce a mucilage. Quince seeds are covered with a grayish 
epithelium which makes them look as if they were slightly 
mouldy. 

Cucumis 

N. Cucumeris Semen, Cucumber Seed. — 0. The seeds of Cucu- 
mis saiivus; Cucurbit acece. — H. Cultivated everywhere. — D. Fig. 
429 shows the whole seed and sections, all natural size ; in struc- 
ture it is similar to pumpkin seed. Oblong-lanceolate, flat, thin, 




Fig. 429. 

sharply two-edged, about 8 to 12 mm. long, whitish; inodorous 
and insipid. — C. Fixed oil, proteids, etc. — U. Cucumber seed is 
similar to watermelon seed in action, diuretic, demulcent and 
anthelmintic. Dose: 10 to 50 grams in infusion. An emollient 
ointment is made by boiling cucumber seeds (or cucumber) in 
lard and straining. 

Abrus 

N. Jequirity Bean, Prayer Beads. — 0. The seed of Abrus pre- 
catorius; Leguminosce. — H. East India. — D. Fig. 430 shows a 
whole seed, a transverse section of same, and an embryo, all in 
natural size. Nearly globular, about 6 to 8 mm. long, very hard, 
glossy scarlet-red with a black spot at the hilum; embryo con- 
sists of two plano-convex cotyledons and a short curved radicle; 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 487 

no odor, taste insipid. — C. Abric acid, fixed oil, 2 proteids which 
are similar in action to snake venom although much weaker, 



Fig. 430. 

fixed oil, etc. — U. A weak infusion is sometimes used as a stim- 
ulating irritant in chronic conjunctivitis or granular eye-lids. 

Cardamomi Semen 

N. Cardamom Seed. — 0. The seeds of Elettaria Cardamomum; 
ZingiberacecB. — H. Malabar, India; see also description of car- 




Fig. 431. 

damom in Group LXII. — D. The seeds in each cell of the cap- 
sule of cardamom are mutually compressed into irregular an- 
gular shapes and adhere more or less firmly together, often re- 
maining so in the drug ; Fig. 431 shows the seeds, adhering as in 
the capsules and separated, in natural size and enlarged, and 
also longitudinal and transverse sections enlarged, showing the 
embryo in the large albumen. The seeds are irregularly an- 
gular, about 3 mm. long, with a grooved hilum, externally 
brownish-yellow, deeply wrinkled and with furfuraceous shreds 
of arillus adhering; odor fragrant, taste pungently spicy and 
aromatic. — C. Four to five per cent volatile oil, some fixed oil, 
etc. — U. Stimulant carminative and stomachic, but used mainly 
as a flavor or spice. 

The seeds of other varieties of cardamom, such as Madras, 
Ceylon, Java or round, etc., resemble those described above in 



488 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



appearance, but are less aromatic. On account of the difficulty 
of determining the absence of a possible admixture of these in- 
ferior seeds, it is best to buy the whole cardamoms and shell 
them oneself. 



N. Colchicum Seed. 
Liliacece. — H. Europe.- 



Colchici Semen 

-0. The seeds of Colchicum autumnale; 
-D. Fig. 432 shows whole seed, natural 




size and enlarged, and section, also enlarged. Subglobular, 
about 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, finely pitted, reddish-brown; 
seed consists mainly of albumen, enclosing a small embryo; 
very hard and tough; no odor, taste bitter acrid. — C. Four- 
tenths of one per cent colchicine, 6 to 8 per cent fixed oil, etc. — 
U. Cathartic and diuretic, mainly used as an arthritic in gout 
and rheumatism. The seeds are about double the strength of the 
tubers. Dose: 0.05 to 0.3 gram. 

Stramonii Semen 

N. Stramonium Seed. — 0. The seeds of Datura Stramonium; 
Solanacece. — H. America, Europe, Asia; common weed nearly 




Fig. 433. 



everywhere. — D. Fig. 433 shows the seed, whole in natural size 
and enlarged, and longitudinal and transverse sections, both 
enlarged. Kidney-shaped, flattened, about 3 mm. long, pitted 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 489 

and wrinkled, hard, brownish-black to almost black; a large 
whitish and oily albumen contains the curved embryo, as shown 
in the sections of the seed; inodorous, bitter. — C. About 0.1 per 
cent daturine, about 25 per cent fixed oil, etc. Daturine is 
really a mixture of atropine and hyoscy amine. — U. Anodyne, 
narcotic and hypnotic. Dose: 0.05 to 0.2 gram. 

Poisonous in overdoses. Antidotal treatment; evacuation and 
washing of stomach, stimulants such as coffee, alcoholic liquors, 
alternately hot and cold douches, etc. 

Hyoscyami Semen 

N. Henbane seed. — 0. The seeds of Hyoscyamus niger; Sola- 
nacecB. — H. Europe and Asia; naturalized in North America. — 
D. The drawings in Fig. 434 show a Avhole seed, natural size, a 




Fig. 434. 



seed and a longitudinal section of one, both much enlarged. 
Flattish, roundish or slightly kidney-shaped, 1 to 1.5 mm. long, 
reticulately wrinkled, gray or yellowish-gray; internally whit- 
ish; the curved embryo is enclosed in an oily albumen; no odor, 
taste oily and bitter acrid. — C. Two alkaloids, hyoscyamine and 
hyoscine, a glucoside, about 25 per cent fixed oil, etc. — U. Same 
as of the leaves, but from 4 to 10 times as active. Anodyne, 
narcotic and hypnotic. Poisonous in large doses; antidotal treat- 
ment same as for stramonium seeds. Dose: 0.1 to 0.2 gram. 

Lobeliae Semen 

N. Lobelia Seed. — O. The seeds of Lobelia inflata; Lobeliacece. — 
H. North America. — D. The figures show a whole seed and a seed 
in longitudinal section, enlarged about 35 diameters. In bulk the 
drug looks like a reddish-broAvn to dark-brown powder, but with 
a Coddington lens the appearance of the individual seeds is read- 



490 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ily discerned. The seed is very small, oblong or elliptic, about 
0.75 mm. long and 0.3 mm. broad, reticulated, the longitudinal 
ridges being united by rather regular transverse ridges, giving 
the seed the appearance as if enclosed in a delicate basket or 
wicker-work; the di-cotyledonous embryo imbedded in a copious 
albumen; no odor, taste acrid. — C. Lobeline, lobelic acid, 30 per 




Fig. 435. 

cent fixed oil, etc. — U. Same as of lobelia; sialagogue, expecto- 
rant, emetic, narcotic and purgative ; in large doses powerfully 
depressant. Dose: 0.05 to 0.5 gram. 

Papaveris Semen 

N. Poppy Seed, Maw Seed. — O. The seeds of the white variety 
of Papaver sonifiiferum; Papaveracece. — H. Asia Minor and India ; 
cultivated. — D. The illustrations show seeds in natural size and 
one seed, whole and longitudinal section, much enlarged. Poppy 
seeds are kidney-shaped, about 1 mm. long, pitted, cream-colored 
or whitish; the white, oily albumen contains the slightly curved 
embryo ; no odor, taste nutty oily. — C. About 50 per cent of fixed 
oil, very slight traces of morphine, etc. — U. As food, mainly ; used 




Fig. 436. 

by bakers, sprinkled so that they become imbedded in the 
dough of rolls, "French bread," etc. As a demulcent in emul- 
sion. Dose: 2 to 5 grams. 

Delphinium 

N. Larkspur Seed. — O. The seeds of Delphinium Consolida; 
Ranunculacece. — H. Europe; cultivated. — D. The illustrations 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



491 



show a whole seed, natural size and enlarged, and a longitudinal 
section, enlarged. Small, obscurely tetrahedral, about 1.5 to 2 
mm. long, externally rough-warty, blackish; internally whitish, 
the oily albumen enclosing a small embryo ; no odor, taste bitter 
acrid. — C. An alkaloid, delphinine, some fixed oil, resin, etc. — 




Fig. 437. 

U. Antispasmodic in asthma ; diuretic, cathartic, in large doses 
emetico-cathartic and poisonous; externally rubefacient. Dose: 
0.06 to 0.2 gram. 

Piper Album 

White Pepper, while really more than a seed because the outer 
portion merely of the pericarp Avas removed, so that the pulp 
and fibro-vascular bundles of the pericarp still enclose the seed 
proper, yet looks so much like a seed that it will probably be 
looked for here by many. It is therefore mentioned in the synop- 
sis of the group, but it has been fully described and figured in 
Group LXV. 

Linum 

N. Linseed, Flax Seed. — 0. The seed of Linum usitatissimum; 
Linacece. — H. Cultivated in most temperate countries. — D. Fig. 




Fig. 438. 



438 shoAvs the seeds in natural size and enlarged, and also in 
longitudinal and transverse sections, enlarged. The seeds are 



492 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ovate, obliquely pointed at one end, flattened, about 4 to 5 mm. 
long, externally glossy brown, internally yellowish-white; the 
large embryo consists of two cotyledons and a radicle, sur- 
rounded by a thin, almost membranous albumen that is more 
likely to be considered as one of the seed-coats than as albumen ; 
no odor, taste mucilaginous, oily and disagreeable. — C. About 15 
per cent mucilage in the epithelium, from 30 to 40 per cent fixed 
oil in the inner portion (embryo and albumen) of the seed, pro- 
teids, some resin, etc. — U. The ground or crushed seeds are used 
for poultices; an infusion is sometimes made of the whole seeds. 
Demulcent. Dose: Ad libitum, as infusion. 

Sinapis Nigra 

N. Black Mustard. — 0. The seeds (Brassica) Sinapis nigra; 
Cruciferce. — H. Cultivated. — D. Fig. 439 shows a seed enlarged, 




Fig. 439. 

with its circular hilum ; also a transverse section and two views of 
the embryo, showing one cotyledon wrapped about the other. 
Almost globular, about 1 mm. in diameter, with circular hilum, 
externally reddish-black and finely pitted, internally oily and 
greenish-yellow ; no odor when dry, but on moistening it develops 
an extremely pungent and irritating odor; taste pungently acrid, 
aromatic. — C. About 25 per cent fixed oil; sinigrin or potassium 
myronate, myrosin, mucilage, etc.; little or no starch. When 
moistened, black mustard emits a strong irritant odor due to the 
volatile oil of mustard formed from the sinigrin by the action 
of myrosin in the presence of water. — U. Aromatic stimulant 
when eaten; in large doses (10 to 15 grams mixed with copious 
draughts of water) ground mustard is a prompt and efficacious 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 493 

emetic ; especially indicated in cases of poisoning because usually 
at hand everywhere. Externally a poultice made of ground mus- 
tard and luke-warm (not hot) water is a valuable rubefacient and 
counter irritant. Its main use is as a condiment. 

Sinapis Alba 

N. White Mustard. — 0. The seeds of Sinapis (Brassica) alba; 
Cruciferce. — H. Cultivated. — D. Fig. 440 shows a seed in natural 
size and enlarged; the embryo is like that of black mustard, 
only larger and with a somewhat larger radicle proportionately; 
in many of the seeds the seed-coats appear as if tightly stretched 
around the embryo so that the shape of the latter gives shape to 
the seed. Oval, almost globular, slightly compressed, about 1.5 
to 2 mm. long, finely pitted or almost smooth, with a small hilum 
at one end and a more or less distinctly marked ridge over 
the radicle the full length of the seed, pale yellowish to yellowish- 
brown externally and yellowish within; inodorous when dry, but 




Fig. 440. 

with strong characteristic odor when moistened ; the taste is pun- 
gently aromatic, similar to that of black mustard, but weaker. — 
C. Like those of black mustard.— U. Mainly as a condiment and 
spice. 

Semen Rapae 

N. Rape Seed. — 0. The seeds of Brassica Napus; Cruciferw. — 
H. Cultivated. — D. The shape of rape seed is like that of white 
mustard seed, the ridge over the curved radicle usually being very 
distinct. "German" rape seed averages about 1.5 mm. in diameter 
and is nearly smooth, though not glossy, and varies in color from 
deep red to nearly black. "English" rape seed is similar in shape, 
a trifle larger than the German, and of more uniform color, red- 



494 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

dish-black; the embryo is formed like that of black mustard. Odor, 
taste and constituents similar to those of mustard. — IT. Used as 
one ingredient of "mixed bird seeds." 

Fcenum Graecum 

N. Fenugreek. — 0. The seeds of Trigonella Fcenum Grcecum; 
Leguminosce. — H. India; cultivated in Mediterranean countries. — 
D. Fig. 441 shows the whole seed, in natural size and enlarged; 
also transverse and longitudinal sections, enlarged. Almost cu- 
bical, or oblong quadrangular, four-edged, about 3 to 4 mm. long 
and about 2 mm. broad, hard, with a projection on one side reach- 
ing from one end to a little more than half-way along the side of 
the seed ; yellowish-brown to brownish ; the embryo consists of two 
cotyledons, and a large radicle which is contained in the projec- 
tion on one side, and a horny albumen which is small in amount 




Fig. 441. 

and considered by some to be seed-coat and not albumen at all; 
peculiar odor and bitter mucilaginous taste. — C. The important 
ingredients are fixed oil and mucilage. — U. Powdered fenugreek 
is sometimes used to make emollient poultices, but is mainly em- 
ployed in veterinary practice as a demulcent; it is a common in- 
gredient of "condition powders." 



GROUP LXVII 

Cotyledons or Seed-Leaves 

The embryos of di-cotyledonous seeds without albumen consist 
of two cotyledons or seed-leaves united at. the base, and with a 
rudimentary nipple-like projection at one end, the root or radicle; 
sometimes there may be found between the two seed-leaves a rudi- 
mentary leafy branch, the plumule. When seeds are opened and 
their seed-leaves are prepared for the trade by removing the seed- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 495 

coats, they belong in this group ; they are then occasionally called 
"semina dceorticata." Within the last few years kola, a drug, one 
variety of which consists of the cotyledons of a poly-cotyledonous 
seed, has also occurred in the trade. 

Ovate, fleshy, plano-convex cotyledons, about 2.5 to 3 cm. 

long and naif as broad; yellowish. Quercus Semen. 

Elongated, fleshy, plano-convex cotyledons, up to 4 cm. 

long; brownish-black Pichurim majus. 

Similar to last, but only about 2 cm. long, ovate; brownish- 
black Pichurim minus. 

Eound, flattish-ovate, plano-convex, or irregular, somewhat 

contorted cotyledons; brownish or reddish-brown Cola. 

Quercus Semen 

N. Glandes Quercus, Acorns. — 0. The separated cotyledons of 
the seeds of Quercus Robur and Q. Sessiliflora; Cupuliferce. — H. 




Fig. 442. 



Europe. — D. Fig. 442 shows the whole fruit of Q. Robur, and the 
cotyledons, outer and inner surfaces and transverse section, all 
natural size. Only the cotyledons occur in the trade ; they are 
thick plano-convex, oblong or ovate, about 3 cm. long and IV2 cm - 
broad, yellowish to yellowish-brown; no odor, taste bitter and 
astringent. — C. About 9 per cent tannic acid, bitter extractive, 
resin, oil, starch, etc. — N. The drug is roasted or parched like 
coffee, and is used as a substitute for coffee, especially when the 
latter is contra-indicated in nervous affections. 

Glandes Quercus are quoted whole in the price lists of European 



496 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



dealers in drugs but are probably seldom imported into this coun- 
try otherwise than roasted and ground. They are seldom used 
in this country, parched rye being more commonly used as a 
substitute for coffee. The parched and ground drug is com- 
monly known as "glandules quercus tostce." 

Pichurim 

N. Pichury, Semen Pichurim, Fabce Pichurim, Pichurim Beans, 
Sassafras Nuts. — 0. The cotyledons of the seeds of Nectandra 
Puchury-major and N. Puchury -minor; Lauracece. — H. Venezuela, 
Brazil, and' other parts of South America. — D. There are two va- 
rieties of Pichurim beans, which are the product of the same 




variety of tree, the difference in size being due probably to dif- 
ferences in soil or climate or both, the "fabce, pichurim majores" 
and "fabce pichurim minor es," or larger and smaller pichurim 
beans; Fig. 443 gives a good idea of shape and size, a showing 
the outer and b the inner surfaces of a cotyledon of the smaller 
kind, c a transverse section of the same, and d the outline of a 
cotyledon of the larger kind showing position of plumule ; black- 
ish-brown externally, lighter-colored internally; odor and taste 
aromatic, reminding of nutmeg and saffron. — C. 2 to 3 per cent 
volatile oil, about 30 per cent fixed oil or fat, resin, coloring mat- 
ter, etc. — U. In South America they are used like we use nut- 
megs, as a condiment or spice; also as a stimulant aromatic in 
cases of bowel affections, diarrhoea, dysentery, etc. Seldom used 
in this country. Dose: 0.5 to 1.5 grams, in powder. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



497 



Cola 

N. Kola, Nuces Cola, Semen Cola, Cola, or Kola Nuts, Guru 
Nuts. The Guinea name Kola or Cola is indeclinable and neuter 
in Latin. — 0. The cotyledons of several varieties of Cola, Ster- 
culia (Cola) acuminata and St. vera; Sterculiacece. — H. Native 
of Africa, but cultivated in tropical countries.— D. The seeds 
of Sterculia vera have two roundish, rather flattish, plano-convex 
cotyledons, the inner surface of one of which is figured in the 
smaller drawing*; the seeds of St. acuminata have four cotyledons, 
which, when separated and dried as in the drug, are irregularly 
contorted or twisted, as shown in the larger figures; all the 
figures are of natural size; when fresh, both varieties are car- 




Fig. 444. 

mine-red, but in the drug the color is brown to brownish-black, 
some pieces occasionally showing reddish, liver-colored or yellow- 
ish-brown patches ; both kinds are very hard, and without odor 
or taste. — C. A glucoside, kolanin, which decomposes readily 
into caffeine, glucose and kola-red. The drug contains from 0.75 
to 2 per cent of caffeine, some tannin, etc. — U. Similar to that of 
coffee, tea, guarana, etc. Dose: About 10 grams during the day. 



GROUP LXVIII 

Arilli or Adventitious Seed- Coats 

In the. general remarks on seeds we studied the structure of 
seeds and learned that the two ovule-coats develop into seed- 
coats. Sometimes, in addition to these coats which fit snugly 



498 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



around the embryo or albumen, and which are usually closely 
adherent, although not always united, there may be adventi- 
tious growths of cell-proliferations from the funiculus, more 
rarely from the placenta, which form another, apparently a third, 
or adventitious seed-coat, but this coat rarely fits closely, but is 
easily separable. Such an adventitious seed-coat is called an 
arillus or aril. 

Fleshy, irregularly lobed and cleft bands, orange-brown; fragrant. . . .Macis. 

Macis 

N. Mace. — 0. The arillus. of Myristica fragrans; Myristicacecc. — 
H. India, Philippines, Molucca and Banda Islands, West Indies, 




Fig. 445. 



South America ; cultivated. — D. The fruit of this tree resembles a 
small peach in appearance; the fleshy outer portion becomes 
dry and coriaceous when ripe and separates into two. valves, ex- 
posing to view a scarlet-red membranous arillus which surrounds 
the kernel or seed; the kernel, which is the nutmeg, is enclosed 
in a thin, glossy, brown shell, and the latter is surrounded by the 
arillus just mentioned. Fig. 445 shows a seed enclosed by the 
arillus, and, to the right, the arillus separated as it occurs in 
the trade, both in natural size. The arillus separated from the 
seed and dried, becomes flattened as in Fig. 445 ; it is multi-cleft 
almost to the base, into a number of lobes and each lobe in turn is 
more or less irregularly cleft into flattish, broad or narrow, wavy 
or contorted bands; Fig. 446 shows an unbroken piece of mace 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



499 



spread out after having been softened by soaking in water, in 
natural size ; orange-brown, somewhat brittle and often broken ; 
odor and taste fragrant, aromatic, — C. 7 to 9 per cent vola- 




Fig. 446. 



tile oil, fixed oil, some resin, etc. — U. As a condiment or spice; 
stimulant, carminative. Dose: 0.5 to 1.5 grams. 



PARTS OF PLANTS NOT EASILY RECOGNIZABLE AS 

SUCH 

We come now to the last general group of vegetable drugs 
showing organic or cell structure, which we divide as follows: 



Parts of plants not easily recognizable 
as such 



Whole LXIX 

Cut, or otherwise altered LXX 

Trichomes LXXI 

Excrescences LXXII 



500 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

These groups contain a heterogeneous collection of drugs which 
have no relations to one another, except that it may be difficult 
for some to make out just what they are, or from what part of a 
plant they are derived. Some may perhaps think that drugs are 
enumerated here that should not be included; for instance, many 
would easily recognize cloves as an unopened flower, while 
others, not as good botanists, might be puzzled to place them in 
their proper group. But it is thought better to include too many 
rather than too few drugs here, and therefore, as far as possible, 
all drugs that may prove difficult for someone are placed in one 
of these groups. It is better to make things too plain and simple, 
than to fail to give the information sought. 

In Group LXIX are included a few drugs which are "cut or 
otherwise altered," which would make them belong in Group 
LXX, as for instance, squill, saffron, pearled barley, spunk, etc. ; 
but some may not notice that these were cut, because superficial 
inspection does not always make this unmistakably clear. There- 
fore such drugs are included in both groups. 

Many of the trichomes, or epidermal appendages or outgrowths, 
such as glands or hairs, are whole, but they are not included in 
Group LXIX, because even a careless examiner will probably 
place them in Group LXXI, even if it is impossible from such a 
careless examination to determine exactly what any one par- 
ticular drug of the group may be. 

Drugs are described in the groups in which they properly be- 
long, but many are enumerated in such groups where beginners, 
students, or unskillful and inexperienced pharmacognosists may 
erroneously suppose that they should be found. These notes are 
intended to enable a student to recognize drugs; scientifically 
and systematically, if possible, but if necessary, ' ' any old way, ' ' 
just so he learns to recognize drugs. 



GROUP LXIX 

Parts of Plants, Not Easily Eecognizable as Such; 

Whole 

The numbers after the names of the drugs refer to the pages on 
which they are described. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 501 

Filiform, much-branched, horny, translucent thallus .... Chondrus, 117. 

Dark-brown or nearly black thallus with large air- 
vesicles - Fucus, 119. 

Long, round, stem-like, but without nodes and without 

cell-differentiation within Laminaria, 120. 

Mixture of several small sea-weeds Corsican Moss, 120. 

Irregularly lobed lichens, brownish-gray above and gray- 
ish-white below Cetraria, 121. 

Flat, brown lichen, with oval prominences on one side 

and corresponding depressions on the other side. . . . Sticta, 122. 

Fusiform, purplish-black grains, from 2 to 5 cm. long. . . . Ergot a, 123. 

Irregular brown-black masses, partly membranaceous, 

partly pulverulent Ustilago, 125. 

White, tough, ligtit masses or fragments Agaricus, 126. 

Ovate, fleshy, plano-convex cotyledons, about 2.5 to 3 

cm. long and half as broad; yellowish Acorns, 495. 

Elongated or ovate, fleshy, plano-convex cotyledons, 

from 2 to 4 cm. long; brownish-black Pichurim, 496. 

Fleshy, irregularly lobed and cleft bands, orange-brown; 

fragrant Mace, 498. 

Bound, hard, more or less nodulated, about 2 cm. in diam- 
eter; dark-colored Galls, 511. 

Irregularly lobed, hollow, thin-walled shells Chinese Galls, 512. 

Bound, spongy, orange or yellowish-brown, up to 5 cm. 

or more in diameter American Galls, 512. 

Brown, pliable, velvety sheets Spunk, 126. 

Semi-fluid, viscid, frothy substance Yeast, 126. 

Bound, dark-brown masses, pulverulent within Puff-Bali, 127. 

Light-yellow, very mobile and inflammable powder Lycopodium, 128. 

Flatfish rhizomes, lobed, peeled, brownish, yellowish, or 

white from being limed Zingiber, 241. 

Narrow slices, up to 5 cm. long and 10 to 15 mm. wide; 

thickest in middle; yellowish-white Scilla, 262. 

Slender cylindrical, sometimes curved pieces, spongy, 

white Sassafras, 273. 

Similar to last, but thicker and yellowish in color Elder Pith, 273. 

Elongated, somewhat angular, scaly, unopened flower- 
heads, 2 to 3 mm. long; grayish-green Santonica, 386. 

Sub-cylindrical calyx-tube with four teeth, terminated 
by a corolla forming a globular head; brown-; 
fragrant Caryophyllus, 392. 

Separate stigmas, or 3 attached to a style, linear-tubular, 

about. 3 cm. long; deep reddish-brown Crocus, 405. 

Cylindrical, about 4 to 5 cm. long and 5 mm. thick, 

spirally nodulated, stalked, grayish-brown Piper Longum, 420, 



502 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Oval or round grains, 2 to 4 mm. long, yellowish-white, 
whiter at ends, yellowish-brown groove along one 
side Pearled Barley, 466. 



GROUP LXX 

Parts of Plants Not Readily Recognizable as Such: Cut or 



Otherwise Altered 



This group includes drugs which are sliced, trimmed, peeled, 
or cut up into small pieces ; also such, like the seeds of Paullinia, 
bruised into a pulp and formed into cylindrical rolls or flat cakes, 
wood charred to charcoal, etc. The main characteristic of this 
group, as distinguished from the last, is that drugs of this group 
show unmistakably that they were thus altered, while some of 
the drugs of the last group may also have been altered but do not 
show it so plainly. 

Most of the drugs of this group have already been described, 
and the numbers following their names refer to the pages where 
this occurs; a few are here described for the first time, however, 
because they never come into trade otherwise than as thus al- 
tered. Cut woods and parts of fruits, etc., which are readily 
recognizable as such, are not mentioned here because it is easy 
to refer to the proper group at once. 

Cylindrical or cake-like masses, very hard, reddish- 
brown; odorless Guarana. 

Black pieces, having the structure of wood, but 
consisting mainly of carbon; or black, odorless 
and tasteless powder, not gritty Caibo Lr'gni. 

Irregular brown-black masses, partly membranaceous, 

partly pulverulent Ustilago, 125. 

White, tough, light masses Agaric, 126. 

Thin, brown, pliable, velvety sheets Spunk, 126. 

Small, conical, light-brown, peeled, or glossy, dark- 
brown, unpeeled pieces of fronds mixed with 
pieces Of rhizome Aspidium, 130. 

Fragments of light porous roots, with thin grayish- 
brown bark, under which is a net-work of 
lighter-colored nbro-vascular bundles Methysticum, 175. 

Short, brownish-gray sections, wood spongy and 

bark easily separable, and flaring at cut ends. . Stillingia, 180. 

Tough, spongy sections with irregular bundles. .... Sumbul, 189, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 503 

Transverse and longitudinal sections of a thick, 
fleshy root with radiating bundles; grayish- 
brown Inula, 192. 

Large, round or plano-convex, orange-yellow pieces 

of root, peeled Rheum, 201. 

Transverse sections, greenish-gray outer surface, 

yellowish on cut surfaces Calumba, 204. 

Grayish-white transverse sections, hard, with promi- 
nent radiating and concentric lines Bryonia, 205. 

Decorticated roots, externally and internally white, 

mealy and fibrous Althaea, 206. 

Small, cubical, white pieces, about 3 to 1 mm. in 

size; peculiar odor Althaea, 207. 

Longitudinal and transverse sections, with project- 
ing white wood-bundles alternating with yellow- 
ish-gray parenchyma Phytolacca? Radix, 207. 

Obconical, blackish-gray, with shriveled lighter- 
colored rootlets; sometimes cut into halves or 
quarters longitudinally, or into transverse 
slices Veratnun Viride, 215. 

Obconical to subglobular, annulate, orange-brown; 
sometimes cut into transverse slices which are 
grayish-brown; slices sometimes strung on 
strings Trillium, 217. 

Longitudinal slices of rhizome, yellowish-brown, 

whitish within; show traces of nodes Polygonatum, 220. 

Long, slender, yellowish-brown longitudinal slices of 
rhizome; in section piano or concavo-convex- 
taste aromatic Calamus, 239. 

Thin, straw-like pieces, hollow, about 1 cm. long. . . . Triticum, 240. 

Slender, nearly straight pieces, smoothly trimmed. 
6 to 8 cm. long, white or cream-white, per- 
forated at one end Finger Orris, 246. 

Ovate orange-brown disks or longitudinal slices of a 
thick rhizome; or circular transverse slices; 
odor and taste resembling ginger Zedoaria, 247. 

Kidney-shaped grayish-white slices Colchici Radix, 257. 

Transverse slices with dark-gray epidermis and 

mealy-white surfaces Arum, 259. 

Narrow slices, up to 5 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad, 

yellowish, diaphanous, brittle Scilla, 262. 

Short, pale, grayish-green pieces of twigs, with 

smooth-cut ends; usually hollow Dulcamara, 270. 

Slender, cylindrical, sometimes curved pieces, spongy 

or pithy, white m ,„ x , Sassafras Medulla, 273. 



504 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

An irregularly coarse, grayish-brown powder, mixed 

with many tough coarse fibers Quercus Alba, 349. 

Leaves rolled into small pellets or cylinders; gray- 
ish-green, bluish-green to blackish Thea, 359. 

Separate stigmas, or three attached to a style, 
linear-tubular, about 3 cm. long; deep orange- 
brown with reddish tinge Crocus, 405. 

Oval grains about 3 to 4 mm. long, or round grains 
half as large, yellowish-white, whiter at ends, 
yellowish-brown groove along one side Hordeum Perlatum, 466. 

Orange-red, irregularly lobed, fleshy bands; fra- 
grant ; often broken Macis, 498. 

For some of these drugs only the reference to the proper page 
is necessary; in regard to others, a few remarks in addition to 
what has already been said may be of help. And some of the 
drugs belong in this group and nowhere else, and these are de- 
scribed in full here. 

Guarana 

N. Guarana. — 0. A dried paste consisting mainly of the crushed 
or pounded seeds of Paullinia Cupana (P. sorbilis); Sapindacece. — 
H. Tropical South America, especially Brazil. — D. Cylindrical 
sticks, rounded at the ends, looking somewhat like Bologna 
sausages, about 15 cm. long and 2.5 to 4 cm. thick, very hard, 
dark reddish-brown, slightly mottled and comparatively smooth ; 
or in subglobular or flattened cakes having the same external 
appearance as the sticks; fracture uneven, somewhat glossy, 
reddish-brown, but paler than the external surface, not homo- 
geneous, but mottled and marbled from fragments of seeds en- 
closed in their darker-colored seed-coats; odor feeble but pecu- 
liar, reminding of chocolate, and taste bitter astringent. — C. 
Partly soluble in alcohol or water, yielding a brown solution with 
either menstruum. The important constituent is caffeine, of 
which the drug contains from 4 to 5 per cent. — U. Guarana re- 
sembles tea and coffee in its effects; it is used mainly to relieve 
sick headache. Dose: 1 to 5 grams, best in fluid extract or elixir. 

Carbo Ligni 

N. Charcoal, Vegetable Charcoal. — ,0. Charcoal prepared from 
soft wood, very finely powdered. The charcoal made from small 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 505 

willow or poplar shoots is most esteemed for medicinal pur- 
poses. — D. Charcoal retains the shape and structure of the wood 
from which it was prepared, but consists only of the carbon to- 
gether with the mineral substances which constitute the ash when 
wood is burned. As usually met with by the retail pharmacist, 
vegetable charcoal is a fine black powder which should be free 
from grit, and should leave, when burned with free access of air, 
not more than 7.5 per cent of ash; tasteless and odorless. — C. If 
properly prepared it should contain no uncarbonized Avood, which 
may be tested by boiling 1 gram of charcoal with a mixture of 3 
c.c. 5 per cent solution of potassium hydroxide and 5 c.c. of water; 
after boiling for several minutes, filter ; complete carbonization is 
shown by the filtrate being colorless or nearly so. — U. Used in 
the arts and manufacturing as a deodorizer and decolorizer. 
When taken internally it absorbs some of the gases and fluids in 
the alimentary tract, and is useful in heartburn, eructations of 
gases or sour fluid, flatulence and dyspepsia. Dose: One or two 
teaspoonfuls mixed with water. 

Powdered vegetable charcoal may be readily distinguished 
from powdered animal charcoal by incineration, leaving less 
than 7.5 per cent of ash, while animal charcoal leaves about 85 
per cent of ash; moreover animal charcoal has a dull black color 
and is gritty. 

GROUP LXXI 

Trichomes 

The word ' ' trichome ' ' means an outgrowth from the epidermis- 
cells of the plant, and includes vegetable hairs in all their modifi- 
cations, as root-hairs, woolly hairs, prickly hairs, glandular hairs 
and glands, simple hairs, branched hairs, etc.; vegetable hairs 
used in medicine are of single cell thickness, thus differing from 
corn-silk, for example, which might by some be mistaken for 
vegetable hairs ; sometimes a hair becomes developed into a thick- 
ened portion, when it is a glandular hair, and in some cases the 
hair structure is no longer readily perceived for it has developed 
into a more or less rounded structure and is then called a gland. 

Only a careless observer might look here for saffron or corn- 
silk, but the spores of lycopodium and of corn-smut might very 



506 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

easily be mistaken for glands. All these substances are therefore 
mentioned here, with reference to the pages where they are de- 
scribed. 

The drugs of this group are best examined under a fairly high 
magnifying power of the microscope, although their identity can 
be established without this aid. 

Vegetable glands 

Granular, mobile, brick-red powder; no odor and little 

taste Kamala. 

Brownish-yellow to yellowish-brown powder; aromatic 

and bitter Lupulinum. 

Vegetable hairs 

Delicate white curling hair§, from 2 to 4 cm. long G-ossypium. 

Glistening, brownish-red silky powder, consisting of 

hairs about 2 to 3 mm. long Mucuna. 

Curling, glossy-brown, soft and delicate hairs, from 2.5 

to 5 cm. long Penghawar, 133. 

Liable to be taken for trichomes 
Irregular, brown-black masses, partly membranaceous, 

partly pulverulent Ustilago, 125. 

Light-yellow, very mobile powder Lycopodium, 128. 

Hardly liable to mistake 

Separate stigmas, or three attached to a style, linear- 
tubular, about 3 cm. long; deep orange-brown with 
reddish tinge Crocus, 405. 

Tufts of soft, silky, thread-like, yellowish fibers, about 
15 cm. long; the ends often matted together and 
dark brown Zea, 407. 

Kamala 

N. Kamala, Glandulce Rottlerce. — 0. Glands and hairs from the 
capsules of Mallotus Philippinensis (Rottlera tinctoria); Euphor- 
hiacece. — H. India, China, Philippine Islands, etc. — D. To the un- 
aided eye Kamala appears as a granular, mobile, brick-red pow- 
der, slightly gritty under the teeth; burns similar to lycopodium 
when blown through a name; not readily miscible with water; 
imparts but little color to water even when boiled in it, but 
yields a deep-red solution when alkalies are added, or in alcohol 
or ether; under the microscope the powder is seen to consist of 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



507 



irregular oval or round glands (more or less opaque as in a, Fig. 
447) mixed with colorless or brownish hairs arranged in stellate 
clusters (d) ; when cleared with diluted solution of potassium 
hydroxide the gland appears as in 6, and when crushed under the 
cover glass there are seen a colorless enveloping membrane and 
60 to 80 little bladder or sac-like vesicles which were attached to 
each other at a common center and which contain a red substance; 
nearly devoid of odor and taste. — C. About 80 per cent resin, 
rottlerin, etc. It should leave only about 8 per cent of ash; a 
larger proportion of ash is due to adulteration with earthy mat- 




Fig. 447. 

ter, which sometimes constitutes the bulk of the drug. — U. Taeni- 
cide and purgative. Dose: 5 to 10 grams. 

Very pronounced grittiness under the teeth should lead us to 
suspect adulteration with sand ; it is always best to examine this 
drug with the microscope to determine its quality. 



Lupulinum 

N. Lupulin. — O. Glands from the axis and bracts of hops, the 
strobiles of Humulus Lupulus; Urticacece. — H. Cultivated. — D. 
When fresh, a golden-yellow, afterwards brownish-yelloAV to 
orange-brown powder, consisting of minute granules or mush- 



508 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

room-shaped glands, which contain a yellow balsamic fluid in a 
reticulate cellular membrane ; odor aromatic, taste bitter. — C. 3 
per cent volatile oil, resin, etc. ; should not yield more than about 




Fig. 448. 

12 per cent of ash on incineration. Ether dissolves about 60 per 
cent of the drug. — U. Stimulant tonic; anodyne, especially on 
genito-urinary organs. Dose: 0.3 to 1 gram. 

Gossypium 

N. Cotton. — 0. Hairs from the seeds of Gossypium herbaceum 
(or of other varieties of Gossypium; Malvaceae. — H. Cultivated in 
tropical and sub-tropical countries. — D. Delicate, white, soft, 
curling hairs, consisting of one-celled filaments varying in length 




Fie. 449. 



from about 2 cm. ("short staple") to 4 cm. ("long staple") and 
about 0.05 millimeter thick. These hairs are simple cells and 
though round when fresh in the pod, collapse when gathered and 



HANDBOOK OP PHARM AOOGNOSY 



509 



dried, and then present a spiral and band-like appearance under 
the microscope. Odorless and tasteless, and insoluble in water, 
alcohol, ether and solutions of caustic alkalies.— C. Mainly cel- 
lulose, about 10 per cent fixed oil and some inorganic matter; 
it leaves about 1.5 per cent ash. — U. For preparing collodion, ab- 
sorbent cotton and various surgical dressings; also* for filtering, 
straining liquids, etc. 

By boiling in weak solution of caustic lye the oil is saponified 
and removed, and this purified cotton is known as "absorbent 
cotton," because it absorbs moisture Avith great avidity. 

Mucuna 

N. Pili Stizolobic, Cowhage. — 0. The hairs from the pods of 
Mucuna pruriens (StizoloMum pruritus); Leguminosce. — H. East 




Fig. 450. 

and West Indies. — D. Glistening, brownish-red, silky powder, 
seen under a lens to consist of stiff, pointed and barbed hairs 
about 2 to 3 mm. long; odorless; they penetrate the skin very 
readily and cause severe itching which is aggravated by rubbing 
or scratching, but is relieved by wetting with water which softens 
the hairs. — C. A little tannin and resin. — U. Formerly used as a 
vermifuge, mixed in molasses, but now seldom employed, except 
perhaps by dishonest horse-traders who are said to make broken- 
down horses appear spirited by applying cowhage to the anus or 
genitals. 



510 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

GROUP LXXII 

Excrescences or Galls 

Galls are peculiar excrescences or tumors produced by the 
stings of various insects on many different plants ; the female 
insect bores a hole with her ovipositor and deposits her eggs, and 
the stimulation or irritation produced thereby causes an abnor- 
mal cell-proliferation which results in the formation of the gall. 
Within this gall the ovum of the insect is hatched and forms a 
larva or grub which feeds on the surrounding vegetable tissue, so 
that a cavity is formed near or at the center of the gall ; the grub 
finally develops into a perfect fly or insect which eats its way out, 
so that a tubular canal is formed from the central cavity to the 
outer surface. 

It is sometimes stated that galls are best before the insect has 
eaten its way out ; those galls are supposed to be best which have 
no hole on the outer surface; such galls are supposed to be the 
"blue," "green" or "black galls," while those with holes in 
them are supposed to be mainly "white galls." The writer is 
convinced that the gall (what there is left of it) after the insect 
has eaten a hole to the surface, is just the same as the gall with- 
out such a hole; of course, it is lighter; but as with the man who 
bought a pound of Swiss cheese and complained of the large 
holes in it, and was told by the grocer that after he had eaten 
the cheese he should return the holes and the grocer would return 
full value for whatever the holes might weigh, so the lightness of 
perforated galls is compensated for by the greater number to the 
pound; what there is of the perforated gall is as good as an 
equal weight of one that is not perforated. When a gall is 
gathered and dried before the insect has matured the latter dies 
and the gall remains unperforated. 

Bound, hard, more or less nodulated, about 2 cm. in diameter; 

dark-colored; often with round holes Galla. 

Irregularly lobed, hollow, thin-walled, slightly downy or 

smooth, brownish Chinese Galls. 

Similar to last, but hairy and grayish Japanese Galls. 

Eound, spongy, orange or yellowish-brown, up to 5 cm. or 

more in diameter American Galls. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



511 



Gaila 

N. Galls, Nut-galls. — 0. Excrescences on Quercus infectoria 
and allied species of Quercus; (Cupuliferce) ; caused by the punc- 
tures made by the female of Cynips Gallce tinctorice, while deposit- 
ing her eggs. — H. The Levant. — D. Fig. 451 shows galls whole 
and in section, with and without holes, all natural size. Galls 
are globular, about 1 to 2 cm. in diameter, nodulated on side 
opposite point of attachment, otherwise smooth, heavy, hard, 
often with a perforation extending from the central cavity; ex- 
ternally dark olive-green, or bluish-brownish-green, or blackish- 
green; internally yellowish-gray, darker towards center; frac- 
ture brittle and granular; the cavity in center has a hard wall 




Fig. 451. 



and occasionally contains a dead grub or imperfectly developed 
insect, or in case the insect has escaped, the debris caused by it ; 
odor none and taste very astringent. — C. From 40 to 75 per cent 
tannin and 2 to 3 per cent gallic acid, etc. — U. Astringent. Dose: 
0.5 to 1 gram. Mainly used for making tannic and gallic acids. 

Dark-colored and heavy nut-galls are usually good, and light- 
colored, light and spongy galls are usually inferior. This dif- 
ference does not appear to be dependent on.Avhether the gall is 
perforated or not, and there is no difference between galls with 
holes and without holes, other things being equal. 

Aleppo (or Syrian) galls are best, and these are shown in Fig. 
451. 

For the manufacture of tannic and gallic acids, galls from dif- 



512 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

ferent sources are also employed. For instance, Chinese galls 
which are hollow, irregularly lobed, thin-walled, usually grayish- 
brown and slightly downy, nearly smooth ; see Fig. 452, in natural 
size. Japanese gulls resemble the Chinese, but are rather more 
downy, and grayish in color ; both are occasionally closed and 
peduncled at base. 

American galls from Quercus lobata, are large, up to 5 cm. in 




Fig. 452. 



diameter, orange or yellowish-brown, spongy and very astrin- 
gent. Galls from sumach and other plants are also employed in 
manufacture and in tanning, but only the Aleppo (Syrian) oak- 
galls described above are of special interest to the pharmacist. ■ 



VEGETABLE DRUGS WITHOUT CELLULAR STRUCTURE 

A small portion, the merest shred, of a cellular drug put on a 
microscope slide and cleared with a drop of solution of potassium 
hydroxide, covered with a cover glass, then examined under 
the microscope, will show cellular structure; if it does not show 
this, it is a drug showing no cellular structure, and may be either 
an animal or a vegetable drug. If of animal origin, it will prob- 
ably cause a strong or disagreeable odor when burned on a hot 
stove lid, or in a flame, while if it is a vegetable drug, the prod- 
ucts of combustion are odorless, or at least not of the peculiar 
character which distinguishes burning animal matter; the test 
being, in fact, the same that is applied by every housewife to de- 
termine whether the cloth she has bought, or of which she has a 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 513 

sample, is really woolen or not. The test is not always appli- 
cable, however, because a few animal substances may produce 
little or no odor on burning, while the reverse is true in regard to 
a few vegetable drugs. 

However, the test will almost always enable us to say whether 
the non-cellular drug under examination is a vegetable drug or 
not, the microscope having determined already that it is non- 
cellular. 

The drugs of this general class may be divided into two sub- 
divisions, according to their appearance under the microscope, 
for some of them show regular and organic structure, although 
not cell-structure: 

[Definite granules LXXIII 

Non-cellular vegetable drugs i A , VVVTr _ 

fe to [Amorphous LXXIV to LXXXVI 



GROUP LXXIII 

Definite Granules Under Microscope 

This group comprises the starch grains; as these are only part 
of the cell-contents, and as "cellular structure" means "com- 
posed of cells," it is evident that starches have no cellular struc- 
ture, although they have organic structure. 

The nature of starch and its relation to the plant economy is 
supposed to have been studied in the lessons on botany, but a 
few words of recapitulation will not be amiss. Starch is plant- 
food which is stored up for future use. It is formed from the 
inorganic food of the plant by the chlorophyll-bodies in sunlight ; 
it ceases to be formed when the plant is in the dark. After hav- 
ing been formed in the green part of the plant, it may undergo 
a change into glucose and be conveyed to other parts of the 
plant, even those that are in the dark under the soil, as in the 
tubers of the potato, for while it cannot be originated from in- 
organic elements by protoplasm in the absence of light (or even 
in the light, for it requires chlorophyll, not protoplasm, to form 
it) it can nevertheless be deposited by protoplasm from the solu- 
tion of glucose in the cell-sap. An extremely small grain of 
starch is first deposited consisting of starch-cellulose ; within this 
is then deposited a softer particle of starch consisting of starch- 



514 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

granulose which forms the hilum, and then around this hilum 
there are deposited, by intussusception, alternating layers of the 
denser starch-cellulose and the softer starch-granulose, thus giving 
the starch grains the appearance of being made up of concentric 
layers around the hilum, which latter is usually excentric. 

According to the needs of the growing plant, these starch- 
grains, once they have been formed by the chloropyhll-bodies, 
can be changed to sugar and reformed and redeposited elsewhere, 
as often as it may be necessary. 

Starch grains are usually rounded or oval, but if a cell is 
crowded with many grains, they may assume more or less angu- 
lar forms; the size of the starch grains may vary from about 
34 o of a millimeter, in potato starch, to M.200 of a millimeter, in 
a variety of chenopodium; but the grains may also vary in size 
in the same plant, as we find, for example, quite small and quite 
large grains in the tuber of the potato, while the grains of starch 
in the seeds of Indian corn are remarkably even in size. More- 
over, the general appearance or shape of the grains of starch is 
sufficiently characteristic in certain plants, to enable us to iden- 
tify them under the microscope. 

That starch grains are colored blue by iodine, and that they 
polarize light, giving a "polarization-cross," has already been 
explained. 

Starch is insoluble in water, alcohol or ether ; if boiled in water, 
it swells into a jelly-like paste, but does not dissolve. 

There is little difference between the various starches as far 
as their use in concerned, and therefore the cheapest source is 
usually utilized, so that potato and wheat starches are mainly 
used in Europe, while corn starch is extensively employed in 
America. For special purposes, however, wheat, rice, arrowroot 
and other starches are used, and a short description of these 
trade articles will be given. 

Most of the starches are white powders, but in bulk they often 
occur in peculiar prismatic columnar pulverulent lumps, as in 
ordinary laundry starch, or in peculiar grains, as in sago or tapi- 
oca. Starch grains are fairly characteristic in appearance under 
the microscope, and although it might be difficult or impossible 
to determine the origin of any single granule, the appearance of a 
microscopical field of them is characteristic. The different 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 515 

starches figured are all enlarged at the same rate, about 250 
diameters, so that it will be seen that the size as well as the 
shape is of diagnostic value in identifying these drugs. 

The student will do well to study also the starches of tur- 
meric, beans, peas, etc., because these substances are sometimes 
used as adulterants for powdered drugs of various kinds. It 
must be recalled to mind, that in examining poAvdered drugs the 
same rule holds good that is used in examining whole drugs, 
namely, that we determine the structure and appearance of the 
pure drug, then if there is anything present that is not of the 
pure drug, it must be an adulteration or admixture, in which 
case we reject the drug, no matter whether we can determine 
what the adulterant is, or not. 

Starches are used as food; in medicine as demulcents; and ex- 
tensively in the arts, for sizing, in laundering, etc. 

The more important starches have microscopical characteris- 
tics, as follows: 

Polyhedric granules often adherent in clusters; uniform, 

with well-marked hilum Corn Starch. 

Lenticular or oval, medium-sized and small granules; 

layers and hilum indistinct Wheat Starch. 

Ovate, large, layers very distinct; hilum at narrow end, 

small, but distinct Potato Starch. 

Polyhedric or angular, very small, uniform; hilum and 

layers indistinct Rice Starch. 

Ovate, medium-sized, layers and hilum distinct; hilum at 

broad end and often cracked or cleft Arrowroot Starch. 

Medium-sized, ovate, oblong, elliptic or irregular, often 

truncate at one end; layers and hilum distinct, the 

latter generally cleft Sago Starch. 

Medium-sized, irregular, often muller-shaped granules; 

layers indistinct; hilum near rounded end Tapioca Starch. 

In macroscopical appearance most of the starches are in pow- 
der or in lumps that are easily reduced to powder by pressure 
between the fingers, but the following appear in peculiar lumps: 

Small, round, pearly, white or brownish, opaque or slightly translu- 
cent lumps Sago. 

Irregular lumps, white and opaque, or slightly translucent Tapioca. 



516 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



Amylum 

N. Corn starch, Maydis Amylum. — 0. The fecula of the seed of 
Zea Mays; Gramijiacece. — H. America; cultivated in other coun- 
tries. — D. Granules polyhedric or angular from mutual compres- 




sion within the cells, often adherent in clusters, uniform in size, 
with large, well-marked central hilum but indistinct layers; 
white ; odorless and tasteless. 

This is the official U. S. P. variety of starch. 

Tritici Amylum 

N. Wheat Starch. — 0. The fecula of the grain or seed of Triti- 
cum sativa; Graminacece. — H. Cultivated in temperate zones. — 




Fig. 454. 



D. White powder; the granules rather small or medium-sized, 
but mixed with many quite small granules with but few of inter- 
mediate sizes; lenticular or oval; layers and hilum indistinct; 
odorless and tasteless. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Tuberis Solani Amylum 



517 



N. Potato Starch. — 0. The fecula of the tuber of Solarium tu- 
berosum; Solanacece. — H. Cultivated generally. — D. White pow- 
der or pulverulent lumps; the granules large, ovate or oblong, 




Fig. 455. 

frequently in twin-granules, layers very distinctly marked, the 
hilum small and near the narrower end, and rarely cracked or 
cleft. 

Oryzse Amylum 

N. Rice Starch. — 0. The fecula of the grain or seed of Oryza 
sativa; Graminacecv. — H. Cultivated generally. — D. A very fine 




white powder; the granules are very minute, by far the smallest 
of the commercial starches, polyhedric or angular, uniform in 
size, layers and hilum indistinct. — U. Owing to the extreme fine- 



518 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



ness of powdered rice starch this variety of starch is most gen- 
erally employed in the manufacture of toilet articles, such as' 
face-powders, etc. 

Marantae Amylum 

N. Arrow root. — 0. The fecula of the rhizome of Maranta arun- 
dinacea; Marantacem. — H. West Indies; cultivated in tropical 
countries. — D. Light white powder, or pulverulent lumps; pro- 
duces a peculiar crackling sound and feel when a package of it is 
compressed between the fingers; should be odorless and taste- 




Fig. 457. 



less, but is sometimes musty, when it should be rejected. The 
granules are of medium size, ovate, oblong, sometimes truncate, 
with delicately marked layers, and a distinct hilum near the 
broader end, the hilum generally cracked or cleft in stellate or 
cross-shaped manner. 

Sago 

N. Sago; the word is indeclinable and neuter. — 0. The fecula 
of the pith of several varieties of sago palms, different varieties 
of Metroxylon, Raphia, Saguerus, Phoenix, Cycas, Zamia, etc. ; but 
usually ascribed to Metroxylon Sagu (Sagas Bumphii) and other 
palms; Palmce (Palmacece). — H. Tropical countries. — D. The word 
' ' sago ' ' refers to the product of a process of treating starch (any 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



519 



starch) so as to form the peculiar grains so well known under this 
name; so that, while sago is mainly prepared from the starch of 
various palms, it has been made from potato and other starches. 
The process consists in heating the still moist starch at a tempera- 
ture of 60° to 70° C, by which many of the grains are changed, 
becoming gelatinous masses ; after having been thus heated, the 
mass is granulated and dried, thus forming the little round, pearly, 
white or brownish, opaque or slightly translucent lumps which 
constitute the trade article. While most of the granules are al- 
tered by this process, some of the granules remain unchanged, and 
these appear under the microscope as medium-sized, oblong,. ellip- 
tic, irregular granules, often truncate at one end; layers and 




Fig. 458. 

hilum both distinct, the latter often cracked or cleft. — U. Alto- 
gether for culinary purposes; as diet for the sick or invalids. 



Tapioca 

N. Tapioca. — 0. The fecula of the rhizome of Manihot utilissima 
(Jatropha Manihot) ; Euplioroiaccce. — H. Brazil; cultivated in trop- 
ical countries. — D. The starch from one variety of this rhizome 
(cassava starch) is mixed with a poisonous milky juice, which is 
removed by washing, the poisonous substance is volatile and if a 
little remains in the starch it is dissipated in the cooking. The 
starch is prepared for the market in a manner similar to that in 
which sago is prepared, but it is not granulated in the same 
manner. Tapioca is in irregular, hard, white, rough grains or 



520 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

lumps, opaque or slightly diaphanous, with most of the starch 
granules changed in shape; the unchanged granules of starch are 
medium-sized, irregular, often muller-shaped, with indistinct 




Fig. 459. 

layers, and the hilum near the rounded end. — U. Altogether for 
culinary purposes ; as diet for the sick and invalids. 



AMORPHOUS VEGETABLE DRUGS 

To a certain extent, although not altogether, the basis of group- 
ing these drugs is their chemical constitution. In regard to quite 
a number of the drugs of this class, there may be reasonable dif- 
ferences of opinion whether we are to consider them as drugs or 
as preparations. If we consider them as drugs, they must be 
described in works on pharmacognosy; if as preparations, they 
should be described in works on pharmacy. Thus, some authors 
describe citric acid as a drug, others do not; we will therefore re- 
call the definition given for the word ' ' drugs ' ' at the outstart of 
this book: "Drugs are the organic substances used in medi- 
cine or in the arts in the crude form in which they are brought 
into trade." For example: Catechu is made by boiling chips, 
etc., of a tree in water, straining and evaporating the decoction to 
solid extract consistence ; this is done where the tree grows ; the 
wood is not sent into trade, but this extract is the crudest form 
in which we get the article ; catechu is therefore a drug. Extract 
of logwood is made in precisely the same way as is catechu, but 
the wood is imported (this is therefore the drug) and the extract 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 521 

is made here or in Europe (where also the wood is imported), 
and the extract is therefore a preparation. 

On the other hand: Extract of licorice is extensively manufac- 
tured from the roots where the roots are grown and it is sent 
into market from there ; it is therefore like catechu and may be 
called a drug; but enormous quantities of the root (drug) are 
imported and manufactured into extract in this country; the 
extract is therefore like the extract of logwood, a preparation; 
what then is it 1 a drug or a preparation ? We will call it a drug, 
but others have just as much right to deny that it is a drug and 
they may call it a preparation. 

No apology is necessary, therefore, if drugs are enumerated here 
that others may not recognize as drugs, nor if the contrary is the 
case. If any error is made, it is better to describe too many 
articles as drugs, rather than to omit important ones. 

Formerly the author classified drugs of this class as "Mixture 
of granular and formless material" and "Homogeneous under mi- 
croscope" (following Schleiden in this regard) ; the first of these 
groups included, for example, opium, because the epidermal cells 
of the poppy capsules are necessarily included. However, this is 
clearly an accidental, even though unavoidable, admixture, and 
the opium itself is homogeneous in structure. 

If a vegetable drug of cellular structure is placed in water it 
will swell, but it retains its structure ; if a non-cellular amorphous 
vegetable drug is placed in a proper solvent, water, dilute alcohol 
or alcohol, it does not retain its shape, but disintegrates, and any 
accidental cellular or other impurities or debris will sink as a 
sediment, if there be any. It is therefore not necessary to retain 
the above mentioned distinction, and drugs of this class are 
grouped as follows: 

AMORPHOUS VEGETABLE DRUGS 

Acids .LXXIV 

Juices LXXV 

Extracts LXXVI 

Sugars LXXVII 

Gums LXXVIII 

Gum-Resins LXXIX 

Resins LXXX 

OJeo-Resins LXXXI 



522 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Balsams LXXXII 

Volatile Oils LXXXIII 

Fixed Oils LXXXIV 

Peculiar Concrete Substances LXXXV 

Coloring Matters LXXXVI 



GROUP LXXIV 

Acids 

Only two acids can fairly be called drugs, citric and tartaric; 
all other acids, such as acetic, benzoic, carbolic, crude pyrolig- 
neous, salicylic, etc., are more properly called preparations. 

Colorless, right-rhombic crystals, deliquesce in moist air; 

acid taste Acidum Citricum. 

Colorless monoclinic prisms, or crystalline crusts; per- 
manent in air; acid taste Acidum Tartaricum. 

Acidum Citricum 

N. Citric Acid. — 0. Usually prepared from the juice of the 
lemon, Citrus medica Limonum; Rutacem (Aurantiacece), but also 
from the fruits of other varieties of Citrus (limes). — H. Cultivated 
in subtropical countries. — D. Colorless, translucent, right-rhombic 
prisms; efflorescent in warm dry air and deliquescent in moist 
air; odorless, and with an agreeable, purely acid taste. — C. Ad- 
mixture of tartaric acid may be detected by dissolving 1 gram of 
citric acid in 5 c.c. of a solution of potassium acetate (1 in 3), then 
adding an equal volume of alcohol; the solution will become 
turbid if tartaric or oxalic acid is present. See also pharmaco- 
poeial tests. — U. Refrigerant; also used in making various pharma- 
ceutical chemicals. Dose: 0.3 to 2 grams. 

Acidum Tartaricum 

N. Tartaric Acid. — 0. Prepared from argols (crude cream of tar- 
tar), a peculiar substance deposited on the inside of wine casks 
during the fermentation of the grape juice into wine. (From 
Vitis vinifera; Vitacece). — D. Colorless, translucent, monoclinic 
prisms, or crystalline crusts ; more commonly found in the drug 
trade as a white powder; permanent in the air; odorless, and 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 523 

with an agreeable, purely acid taste. — C. See pharmacopoeia! 
tests for purity, etc. — U. Refrigerant; also used in making various 
pharmaceutical chemicals. Dose: 0.3 to 2 grams. 

GROUPS LXXV AND LXXVI 

Inspissated Juices and Extracts 

Group LXXV includes substances which are fluids in the living 
plants, and which are obtained by making incisions, etc., when 
they exude, after which they are inspissated to solid extract con- 
sistence. They are soluble, or at least partially soluble, in water. 

But we arbitrarily limit this group to such inspissated juices 
that dissolve more or less completely in water, for otherwise 
gutta percha, caoutchouc, crude turpentine, Peruvian balsam, 
etc., would also be "juices." 

A strictly scientific classification in pharmacognosy should be 
based on physical characteristics that- can be recognized in the 
drug itself, so that a classification of volatile oils adopted by one 
author as "from rhizomes, from woods, from barks, from leaves, 
from herbs, from flowers, from fruits, from seeds, from oleo- 
resins, from stearopten, from resin ' ' can be of no value whatever 
in pharmacognosy, because it is impossible to tell by a mere in- 
spection or examination of an unknown volatile oil, from which 
of these sources it was obtained, leaving out of consideration the 
fact that when a " resin" can yield a volatile oil, it is not a resin, 
but an "oleo-resin. " 

So the above definition of inspissated juices, that they are more 
or less completely soluble in water, is not sufficient to sharply 
define this group from the next group, the extracts. Extracts 
are solid plant-cell contents, and are dissolved out from their 
various plant-sources by boiling in water, then evaporating to 
solid extract consistence. They also dissolve more or less com- 
pletely in water. 

There is no distinctive characteristic by which we can dif- 
ferentiate drugs of the two groups except, in a general way, the 
greater solubility of extracts in water alone, and these two groups 
might have been placed together, possibly with more propriety 
than to keep them separate. It must be admitted that other 
writers, Maisch for instance, had good cause to make one group 



524 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

of "Extracts and Inspissated Juices;" on the other hand, it adds 
much to the students' understanding of the nature of the indi- 
vidual drugs if they are grouped as is done here. 

In order, however, to avoid any difficulty that might arise from 
an inability to distinguish the drugs of these two groups by any 
physical characteristics, they are enumerated and compared with 
eaeh other in one synopsis or descriptive list. 

Of course, the preparations known as "succi" or "juices" (of 
the British pharmacopoea), or the "solid extracts" (of our own 
and other pharmacopoeias) have nothing in common with this 
group in a system of pharmacognosy. They are "preparations," 
pure and simple. 

Guarana might readily be taken for an extract or inspissated 
juice, unless a bit of it is examined under the microscope, and it 
is, in fact, grouped with these drugs by Maisch. It is included 
in the synopsis, with reference to its proper group. 

Inspissated Juices (Group LXXV) 

Irregular subglobular cakes, brown, with remnants of 
leaves or rumex fruits adhering; heavy narcotic 
odor Opium. 

Hard, orange-brown, opaque masses, with resinous frac- 
ture; odor suggests saffron Aloe. 

Small, angular, shining, brittle pieces, ruby-red, trans- 
parent in small fragments; odorless Kino. 

In quarter-sections of plano-convex cakes, or in ir- 
regular pieces; grayish-brown Lactucarium. 

Extracts (Group LXXVT) 

Irregular broken masses, brittle, dark -brown; sweetish 

astringent taste Catechu. 

Dark-brown, almost black cakes or fragments; often 

cakes enclosed in paper-boxes Logwood Extract. 

In round black sticks with an impression of trademark 

at one end; or in large, black masses or lumps; 

very sweet Liquorice Extract. 

Sometimes in flat, scaly fragments; more commonly as 

a thick extract-like mass, in jars French Lactucarium. 

Apt to be mistaken for an extract 

Cylindrical or cake-like masses, very hard, reddish- 
brown; odorless Guarana. 

(See Guarana, Group LXX.) 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 525 

Opium 

N. Opium, Thebaic urn. — 0. The concrete, milky exudation ob- 
tained by incising the full-grown but not yet ripe capsules of 
Papaver somniferum; Papaveracece. — H. Western Asia; culti- 
vated. — D. The milky juice which exudes when incisions are 
made in the poppy capsules, becomes concrete and turns brown 
in color; it is gathered and formed into lumps, which are 
wrapped in poppy leaves and packed with rumex-capsules. 
Opium is in subglobular lumps or cakes, irregularly angular from 
mutual compression, being packed while still somewhat moist ; 
the leaves and sometimes rumex-capsules adhere to the outer sur- 
face ; varying in color from chestnut-brown to dark-brown and 
in consistence from quite dry and rigid to semi-plastic, according 
to the amount of moisture retained; granular in fracture, and 
mixed with shreds of the epidermis of the capsules; odor heavy 
narcotic and taste nauseous bitter. — C. The most important con- 
stituent is morphine, of which opium in its usual moist condition 
should contain not less than 9 per cent; when dried and pow- 
dered, opium should contain from 12 to 12y 2 per cent of morphine, 
and the average of this may be obtained by mixing opium of 
higher assay with a proper quantity of opium of lower assay. In 
addition to morphine, opium contains about 10 per cent of narco- 
tine, about 0.2 to 0.7 per cent codeine, and about 15 other, unim- 
portant, alkaloids. — U. Narcotic anodyne, anti-spasmodic, hyp- 
notic; used also to check discharges from the bowels. Dose for 
adults: 0.05 to 0.1 gram; should be given to children with great 
caution. It is usually better to give in divided doses, even to 
adults. 

In large doses, opium is a narcotic poison. Antidotal treatment 
consists in prompt evacuation of the stomach, preferably by 
means of stomach pump or tube, keep patient awake by walking 
him about, cold douches, flagellation if necessary, and by giving 
stimulants internally, such as strong coffee, alcoholic liquors, and 
atropine subcutaneously. 

Varieties: Turkey opium, also called Constantinople or Smyrna 
opium, is the usual trade article, as described above. Egyptian 
opium in nattish cakes, Persian opium in sticks wrapped in paper, 
and Indian opium put up in large balls wrapped in a thick case 



526 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

of poppy leaves, or in cakes wrapped in oiled paper, are not met 
with in ordinary trade. 

Adulterations are mainly of a mechanical character, such as im- 
bedded leaden shot or bullets, pebbles, etc., but gum, starch, ex- 
tract from poppy plants, etc., have also been used. The assay 
must determine the quality of any given lot of opium. 

Aloe 

N. Aloes. — 0. Obtained from several varieties of Aloe (nat. 
ord. : Liliacem) by cutting off the leaves, allowing the juice to 
exude without pressure, and then evaporating to solid con- 
sistence. — H. As mentioned further on, in connection with dif- 
ferent varieties of Aloes. — D. Irregular or broken lumps, different 
shades of brown, opaque in mass, but in thin layers translucent to 
transparent; fracture more or less distinctly conchoidal, varying 
from dull waxy to resinous ; odor peculiar, reminding of saffron, 
and taste intensely bitter. — C. Aloin varies in quantity in dif- 
ferent aloes, from 16 to 25 per cent in Natal aloes, to none at all 
in Cape aloes ; resin 60 per cent in some aloes, trace of volatile oil, 
etc. — U. Active purgative, emmenagogue. Dose: 0.1 to 0.5; for 
drastic effects, the dose is sometimes increased to 1 gram. 

The following are the more important varieties of aloes oc- 
curring in the trade: 

Aloe Socotrina, Socotrine Aloes; from the Island of Socotra 
and Eastern Africa ; obtained from A. Perryi; brought into trade 
usually in monkey-skins. The interior sometimes still moist, yel- 
lowish or orange-brown, not greenish; translucent; odor rather 
pleasant. Considered the best variety of aloes. 

Aloe Barbadensis, Barbadoes Aloes ; from the Island of Barba- 
does; obtained from A. vera; brought into trade mainly in gourds. 
Deep orange-brown; odor peculiar, differing from Socotrine aloes. 
Considered to be a good variety of aloes. Curacao aloes, a va- 
riety of Barbadoes aloes, gathered and prepared from A. vera, 
A. spicata and other varieties of Aloe, in the Dutch West Indies, 
comes into trade in old boxes and irregular packages. It is said 
that Barbadoes aloes is no longer to be found in the trade and that 
Curacao aloes has displaced it entirely. 

Aloe Capensis, Cape Aloes; from Southern Africa, Cape of 
Good Hope; obtained from A. ferox and other varieties of Aloe; 



HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 527 

comes into trade in boxes or skins. Blackish-brown or olive- 
black ; odor disagreeable. The poorest variety of aloes, used al- 
most exclusively for veterinary purposes. 

Kino 

N. Kino. The word is indeclinable and neuter. — 0. The in- 
spissated juice, from incisions in the trunk of Pterocarpus Mar- 
supiiim; Leguminosce. — H. East Indies. — D. Small, angular, brit- 
tle pieces, glossy, brownish-red in larger fragments, ruby-red and 
transparent in small splinters or on the edges of the larger frag- 
ments; odorless, with sweetish astringent taste, becoming plastic 
and adherent to the teeth when chewed, and coloring the saliva 
deep-red. — C. Kino-tannic acid, coloring matter, etc.; should be 
almost completely soluble in alcohol and at least 80 per cent 
should be dissolved by boiling water. Kino contains pectin, etc., 
and its solutions, such as tincture, etc., are very apt to gelat- 
inize. — U. Pleasant astringent, especially in diarrhoeas of chil- 
dren. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 

Several varieties occur in the trade, of which the one men- 
tioned above is the best and the most usual; it is known as Mala- 
bar Kino. 

West Indian Kino, or Jamaica .Kino, is from Coccoloba uvifera; 
Polygonacece; dark brown-red and almost completely soluble in 
both alcohol and water. 

South American Kino, or Caraccas Kino, is from the same plant 
as the West Indian variety, but seems to be prepared in a more 
slovenly manner ; it contains more impurities. 

African Kino was from a variety of Pterocarpus, but is no 
longer found in the trade. 

Australian Kino, or Botany Bay Kino, is from Eucalyptus 
resinifera and other varieties of Eucalyptus; Myrtacece. It varies 
in characteristics, is often very much contaminated with impurities, 
as bits of bark, etc., and is seldom used. 

Lactucarium 

N. Lactucarium, German Lactucarium. — 0. The concrete milk- 
juice of Lactuca virosa (nat. ord. ; Compositce), obtained by in- 
cision and gathered when partially dry or concrete. — H. Prepared 



528 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

in Scotland, England, France and Germany; the variety mainly 
used in this country is "German" Lactucarinm. — D. The juice ap- 
pears to be collected in small saucer-shaped vessels, and when nearly 
hard is cut into four pieces ; this makes the pieces appear as quarters 
of a saucer-shaped cake, as shown in the illustration ; or it may oc- 
cur in irregular fragments of larger cakes broken up; grayish- 
brown to dark reddish-brown externally, whitish-gray within, 
with waxy fracture; odor heavy narcotic, taste bitter. — C. Lac- 
tucin, caoutchouc, resin, etc. Partly soluble in alcohol and ether ; 
yields nearly half its weight to boiling water, making a deep- 
brow T n solution. Diluted alcohol dissolves about 40 f per cent of 
the drug. — U. Anodyne, soporific or hypnotic; similar in action 




Fig. 460. 

to opium, but much less active and reliable. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram; 
has been given even up to 4 grams. 

See also Lactucarium Gallicum, a little farther on. 



Extracts 
See remarks and synopsis of group on pages 523 and 524. 

Catechu 

N. Catechu, Cutch, Terra Japonica. The word "catechu" is 
indeclinable and neuter. — 0. An extract prepared from the heart- 
wood of Acacia Catechu; Leguminosce. — H. East Indies. — D. In 
irregular masses and fragments, dark brown, fracture brittle and 
glossy when freshly made ; often contaminated with fragments of 
leaves, etc., due to the fact that the inspissated juice is poured 
on layers or mats of leaves to cool and harden; nearly odorless, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 529 

with sweetish and very astringent taste. — C. About 35 per cent 
catechutannic acid ; should not yield more than 6 per cent of 
ash. — U. Astringent. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 

Catechu pallidum, or Pale Catechu Gambir, is an entirely dif- 
ferent article. The word "gambir" is indeclinable and neuter. 
Gambir is an extract prepared from the leaves and twigs of 
Ouroceparia Gambir; Rubiacece. — H. Malacca, Sumatra and 
Cochin China. — D. The leaves and small twigs are boiled in water 
and the decpction is evaporated to solid extract consistence. It 
conies into trade in irregular lumps or small cubes, about 2.5 
cm. in size ; reddish-brown externally and lighter colored within 
with a brittle and dull fracture ; odorless, sweetish-bitter and 
astringent taste. — C, U. and dose, as of catechu. 

Haematoxyli Extr actum 

N. Logwood Extract. — 0. Made by evaporating a decoction 
from chips of the heart-wood of Hcematoxylon Campechianum 
(nat. ord. ; Leguminosce) to dry extract consistence. See also Hce- 
matoxylon, page 281. — D. Brittle, dry cakes of deep ruby-red 
color, without odor and with sweetish astringent taste. As a 
trade article or drug, it usually occurs in circular cakes enclosed 
in paper boxes, prepared by pouring the extract, when suffi- 
ciently evaporated to congeal, into the boxes as moulds and let- 
ting the extract harden in the boxes. — C. Tannic acid and a 
peculiar coloring principle, hematoxylin. — U. A mild astringent. 
Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Also used in dyeing textile fabrics. 

Glycyrrhizae Extractum 

N. Liquorice Extract, Liquorice, Licorice. — 0. Made by evap- 
orating a decoction of the roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra (nat, ord.: 
Leguminosm) to dry extract consistence. — D. This extract is manu- 
factured in enormous quantities, both at the places where liquor- 
ice root is grown, and in this country, most of it being consumed 
in the manufacture of chewing tobacco. For this purpose it is 
furnished in casks, boxes, etc., into which the extract is poured 
and in which it cools and hardens. For the drug-trade the ex- 
tract is moulded into round sticks, about 1.5 cm. thick and about 
15 cm. long, with usually a trade-mark or manufacturer's brand 



530 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

stamped on one end, which is flattened and broadened thereby. 
The extract is black, with brittle, glossy, conchoidal fracture ; no 
odor, very sweet taste. — C. The sweetness depends on glycyr- 
rhizin. — U. Demulcent, expectorant. Mainly used in pharmacy 
and medicine as an excipient, to disguise the tastes of disagree- 
able medicines. 

Lactucarium Gallicum 

N. French Lactucarium, Thridace. — 0. The juice of the tops 
of Lactuca virosa (Composite), obtained by expression, or an 
extract obtained in the usual manner by boiling water, inspissated 
to dry extract consistence. — D. Occurs in the trade in thin flat brown 
cakes, or, as it is hygroscopic, more frequently as a dark-brown 
pasty mass, like thick solid extracts. Odor slightly narcotic, 
taste bitterish. — U. Similar to those of true lactucarium, but 
weaker and even less reliable. Used almost exclusively as a 
cheaper substitute for true lactucarium. 



GROUP LXXVII 

Sugars 

Sugars are sweet to the taste, soluble in water, forming syrups, 
and soluble in dilute alcohol. It is not necessary to say much 
about the different kinds of sugars or saccharine principles, be- 
cause that belongs to chemistry rather than to pharmacognosy; 
a few words on this subject will therefore suffice, 

Cane sugar, Saccharose or Sucrose, from sugar cane, sorghum, 
sugar beet and sugar maple. 

Grape sugar, including dextrose or grape sugar and levulose, or 
fruit sugar, from grapes and fruit, but commercially, by chemical 
processes, from starch of corn and cereals ; 

Mannite, contained in manna; 

Maltose, produced by the action of malt on starch; and 

Lactose, or milk sugar, from the whey of milk. 

In this connection the saccharine substances of animal origin 
must be remembered, namely sugar of milk (see page 45) and 
honey (see page 48). 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 531 

White, hard, crystalline granules; very sweet Saccharum. 

Cylindrical crystalline masses; transparent, and very 

sweet Bock Candy. 

Yellowish granules or masses; or thick, viscid, transparent 

paste; sweet Glucose. 

Flattish- yellowish-white, porous flakes; honey-like odor 

and sweet taste Manna. 

Cylindrical crystalline masses; yellowish-white, opaque; 

sweetish Saccharum Lactis. 

Syrupy, sweet, aromatic, sometimes granular liquid Mel. 

Saccharum 

N. Sugar. — 0. and H. From the cane of Saccharum officinarum 
(Graminacece), cultivated in Southern United States, West In- 
dies, Africa, Hawaiian Islands, and other tropical and subtrop- 
ical countries; from Sorghum saccharatum and other varieties of 
Sorghum (Graminacece), cultivated in the Northern temperate 
zone; from the sugar beet, Beta vulgaris (Chenopodiacece) , culti- 
vated in temperate parts of North America and Europe ; from 
the sugar maple, Acer Saccharin um (Sapindacece), cultivated in 
Northern United States and Canada. The sugar beet is the most 
important source of sugar, the sugar cane coming next in impor- 
tance. — D. Sugar, or " granulated sugar," occurs in white dry,, 
hard, crystalline granules, permanent in the air, soluble in one- 
half its own weight of water; odorless, and w r ith a pure sweet 
taste. — U. Demulcent, lenitive ; mainly used for sweetening. 

Rock Candy is cane sugar crystallized in large cylindrical or 
irregular masses, usually around a string or stick; either color- 
less, or colored pink. It is simply a pure sugar. 

Clarified (yellowish) and brown sugars contain small quanti- 
ties of molasses ; they are granular, not crystalline, and very 
sweet. 

Inferior granulated sugar often has a yellowish tint, which is 
removed or "bleached" by adding ultramarine or Prussian blue 
to the sugar; sugar whitened thus is apt to cause bluish precipi- 
tates in preparations made from it, and chemical syrups are apt 
to spoil more readily than when pure granulated sugar is em- 
ployed in making them. 

When sugar is crystallized from its solution, a certain propor- 
tion of it remains as uncrystallizable sugar in the solution and 



532 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

this constitutes "syrupus fuscus," molasses, or sugar house 
molasses. 

Crude maple sugar usually comes in round or rectangular 
cakes, of a yellowish-brown color, with an agreeable aromatic 
odor and a very sweet, peculiarly pleasant flavor. 

Saccharum Uveum 

N. Grape Sugar. — 0. Can be made from grapes or fruits, but is 
made in a much cheaper manner by boiling starch for some 
time with dilute sulphuric acid, then neutralizing the acid with 
calcium carbonate, filtering the solution and evaporating the 
filtrate. — D. Whitish or yellowish masses or granules, inodorous, 
less sweet than cane sugar. Also furnished in the form of a 
thick, viscid, paste-like mass, when it is called glucose ; also less 
thick, or as a syrup. — U. Same as of cane sugar, for which latter 
it is often used as a harmless and cheap substitute or as an ad- 
mixture, especially in the manufacture of candies and confec- 
tions. Solutions of glucose are more apt to ferment thau solu- 
tions of cane sugar, and glucose is therefore less fitted for mak- 
ing the pharmaceutical and chemical syrups. 

Manna 

N. Manna. — 0. A concrete saccharine exudation from incisions in 
the stem of Fraxinus Ornus; Oleacece. — H. Mediterranean coun- 
tries. — D. "Flake Manna:" In flattish, somewhat three-edged 
pieces or "flakes," up to 20 cm. long and 5 cm. broad, although 
usually much smaller; porous, crystalline, easily broken; yel- 
lowish-white externally, white within; odor aromatic, reminding 
of honey, and taste sweet, slightly bitterish and acrid. In a less 
valuable variety of manna, the flakes are broken and more or 
less agglutinated, forming irregular lumps; less white, more yel- 
lowish to yellowish-brown ; otherwise like flake manna. — C. About 
90 per cent mannite in the best varieties, glucose, etc. — U. Leni- 
tive, demulcent, laxative. Dose: 5 to 25 grams. 

"Sorts Manna" or "Manna in Sorts" consists of more or less 
agglutinated masses, showing tears with crystalline structure, 
but few fragments of flakes ; often brown, and always inferior 
to flake manna. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 533 

A fat, viscid, brownish manna Avith neither fragments of 
flakes or tears, and showing no crystalline particles, should be 
rejected. 

GROUP LXXVIII 

Gums 

In many trees a peculiar change of the. cell-wall in the 
barks takes place under certain circumstances, resulting in the 
formation of gum. Incisions or accidental injuries to such 
trees are followed by an exudation of a peculiar material, in- 
tended apparently by nature as a means of closing the wound 
and protecting the tree against injurious influences (from bac- 
teria causing decay) or too great a bleeding or loss of sap. 

Gums have an insipid taste, are soluble in water, or swell in 
water, forming either a liquid mucilage or a jelly-like paste; 
they are insoluble in alcohol and are precipitated from watery 
solutions by alcohol. 

When a gum, resin, or other substance exudes in round or 
oval grains or lumps, and these lumps remain separate, they 
are known as " tears;" if they exude in flat band-like pieces, 
these pieces are called "flakes." 

Gums from various trees, peach, cherry, the mesquite trees of 
Texas, etc., have been used, but are not regular articles of com- 
merce although they may perhaps be met with as adulterants 
occasionally. Dextrin, made from starch, is used as a substitute 
for gum arabic in the manufacture of cheap mucilages for 
pasting. 

In distinct, transparent, crackled, colorless to yellowish tears; 

soluble in water Acacia. 

In wavy and curved flakes, whitish, translucent; swells in 

water Tragacantha. 

Acacia 

N. Acacia, Gum Arabic. — 0. A spontaneous exudation from 
the stems and branches of Acacia Senegal; Leguminosce; prob- 
ably also from other varieties of Acacia, as A. vera, etc. — H. 
Africa, — D. Roundish, crackled tears, or angular fragments of 
tears, with a brittle, vitreous, sometimes iridescent fracture; 



534 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 



transparent and nearly colorless in small tears that are riot 
crackled or in thin fragments, bnt more or less opaqne from numer- 
ous minute fissures in the larger tears ; varying in color from 
nearly colorless in the best varieties to yellowish or brownish 
in inferior grades; odorless; taste mucilaginous and insipid. — 
C. About 14 per cent water; arabic acid combined with calcium, 
magnesium and potassium, sugar, etc. Acacia is soluble in 
water and forms a mucilage with it; but insoluble in alcohol. — 
U. Demulcent; used for emulsifying and in the arts. 

Poorer varieties of acacia are darker colored, almost brown, 
but all varieties yield a perfectly white powder, which should 
contain no starch. The faintest sourish odor, when moist 
breath is blown over it, indicates an inferior gum. 

Tragacantha 

N. Tragacanth.— 0. Exudes spontaneously and from incisions 
in the stem of Astragalus gummifer and other varieties of Astra- 
galus; Leguminosce. — H. Western Asia. — D. Flake Tragacanth: 
In bands or flakes of various sizes and widths, more or less 
wavy, curved and contorted, marked with parallel lines, white 




Fig. 461. 

or yellowish- white, translucent, horny, tough; odorless and in- 
sipid. — C. Consists mainly of bassorin, and a compound of gum- 
mic acid with calcium that is not identical with that found in 
Acacia. About one-half of this gum (the bassorin) is insoluble 
in water, merely swelling into a gelatinous mass or paste. — U. 
Demulcent; used to make pill-masses, pastes, etc. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 535 

Tragacanth in sorts consists of irregular, more or less dirty 
fragments or small tears, often mixed with foreign material, 
peach or cherry gum, etc. 

GROUP LXXIX 

Gum Resins 

The fluids from which these drugs are formed, exist in the 
plants as emulsions (milky juices, latex) either in intercellular 
spaces or spurious ducts, or in true ducts having their own 
Avails. They consist of a resinous constituent, soluble in alco- 
hol but not in water, and a mucilaginous substance (gum) 
soluble in water but not in alcohol; in the plant these con- 
stituents are mixed with water, as emulsions. Usually they 
also contain a little fixed oil, some inorganic substances, etc. 
After they have once been dried, as in the drugs, it is not al- 
ways possible to remake the emulsion by mere addition of 
Avater and trituration, implying therefore that some chemical 
changes have or may have taken place during the drying of the 
latex from Avhich they Avere formed. 

Some authors (Berg and Maiseh, for example) have grouped 
gum-resins according to AA'hether they contain small quantities 
of volatile oil or not. but the amount of this constituent is not 
sufficiently large in any of them to be of much importance. 
Gamboge, scammony and euphorbium contain no A^olatile oil ; 
the others contain from mere traces to a feAv per cent of it, ac- 
cording to the age of the drug, losing this constituent in the 
course of time, unless kept in tight containers; and even then 
it aauII gradually become less, probably by the oxidation of the 
oil into resin. 

Deep reddish-yellow or orange-yellow cylindrical solid or hollow 
pieces, or cakes; bright lemon-yellow when wetted or 
powdered Cambogia. 

Greenish -black or dark grayish, more or less porous masses. . . . Scammonium. 

Irregularly roundish tears, often hollow or enclosing spines 

or fruit parts; yellowish or yellowish-brown Euphorbium. 

Brownish, slightly sticky mass; containing whitish tears em- 
bedded in a pinkish-brown substance; very fetid odor. . . . Asafcetida. 



536 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

In separate tears, or masses, dirty white to pale brown ex- 
ternally, with bluish-white opalescent fracture; peculiar 
odor and bitter taste Ammoniacum. 

Tears or masses, friable, reddish-brown, with fatty or waxy 

fracture Myrrha. 

Yellowish translucent tears, generally rough and powdery on 

the outer surface from attrition Olibanum. 

Small, whitish to yellowish-brown translucent tears, with pe- 
culiar odor and acrid bitter taste Galbanum 

Cambogia 

N. Gamboge, Gummi Gutti. — 0. A gum-resin obtained from 
Garcinia Hanourii; Guttiferce. — H. Southeastern Asia, in Cam- 
bo j a, Annam and Siam. — D. The milk- juice exudes from in- 
cisions and is gathered in bamboo joints; when sufficiently dry 
the bamboo is split off and the gamboge is in cylindrical, some- 
times tubular pieces (pipe gamboge) 2.5 to 5 cm. in diameter, 
showing longitudinal impressions or lines of the inner surface 
of the bamboo; fracture shallow conchoidal, glossy; yields a 
bright yellow powder and becomes bright lemon-yellow when 
wetted ; no smell, but taste acrid. This is the best variety of 
gamboge; a somewhat less valuable kind, because more liable 
to be adulterated, is gamboge in cakes, which, however, cor- 
responds otherwise to the above description. — C. 65 to 80 per 
cent resin (cambogic acid), about 4 per cent wax, 1 per cent 
ash and the remainder gum; the gum therefore varies inversely 
as resin is more or less plentiful. — U. Active hydragogue ca- 
thartic. Dose: 0.05 to 0.1 gram; never given in full dose but 
only in combination with other remedies. 

Scammonium 

N. Scammony. — O. A resinous exudation obtained from the 
living roots of Convolvulus Scammonia; Convolvulacece. — H. 
Western Asia.— D. In irregular, angular masses or in circular 
cakes, externally greenish-black or dark grayish, darker in- 
ternally and more or less porous, as if it had been frothy when 
exuding, breaking with an angular resinous fracture ; odor some- 
what cheese-like and taste slightly acrid. — C. From 75 to 95 per 
cent resin, the balance mainly gum. The medicinal value de- 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 537 

pends on the resin alone, and as the drug is almost always more 
or less impure or adulterated, only the resin ought to be em- 
ployed. Scammony sometimes is found containing less than 25 
per cent of resin. — -U. Hydragogue cathartic. Dose: 0.05 to 0.25 
gram. 

The Resina Scammonii of the Br. P. is a pharmaceutical prepa- 
ration made by exhausting the scammony root with alcohol and 
precipitating with water. That of the U. S. P. is a purified scam- 
mony, therefore, also a preparation. 

Euphorbium 

N. Euphorbium. — 0. A gum-resin obtained by making incisions 
in the stem of Euphorbium resinifera ; Euphorbiaeea. — H. Mo- 
rocco.- — D. Irregular, conical or round tears or drops, about the 
size of a pea to the size of a hazelnut, brittle, yellowish or yel- 
lowish-brown, internally lighter-colored, opaque or slightly trans- 
lucent ; nearly odorless, taste very acrid. The powder is a vio- 
lent sternutatory. — C. About 38 per cent resin, 22 per cent eu- 
phorbon, 18 per cent gum, etc. — U. A drastic emetico-cathartic, 
but not used internally. The acrid resin renders plasters made 
from euphorbium rubefacient and vesicant. 

Asafoetida 

N. Asafetida. — 0. A gum-resin obtained from the living roots 
of Ferula Asafoetida and Ferula foctida (Narthex Asafoetida) ; 
Umbellifera. Probably also from other varieties of Ferula. — H. 
Afghanistan, Persia, Thibet and countries on the Arabian Sea. — 
D. The finest asafetida is in irregular firm masses, neither hard 
and dry, nor soft and sticky; externally yellowish-gray to brown- 
ish-gray, internally milk-white when first broken but changing 
gradually to yellow, pink, purplish-red or brown, and showing 
tears imbedded in the mass, the tears undergoing the color 
changes slower than the mass in which they are imbedded; 
should be free from admixture of bark and other foreign im- 
purities; odor very disagreeably fetid (wherefore it is called 
Teufelsdreck in German, or Stercus Diaboli in older pharmacy), 
and taste bitter. — C. From 3 to 9 per cent volatile oil, 20 to 30 
per cent of gum, and 50 to 70 per cent of resin; not less than 50 
per cent should be dissolved in alcohol, and the ash should not 



538 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

exceed 10 per cent; when triturated with water it yields a white 
emulsion. — U. Nervine, antispasmodic and carminative; an in- 
gredient of most table sauces. Dose: 0.2 to 1 gram. 

Asafetida in tears is best, but scarce. Asafetida in masses is 
most plentiful, the better kind often consisting mainly of whitish 
tears, imbedded in or agglutinated by a comparatively small 
amount of the somewhat softer pinkish-brown substance. This is 
the kind described above. 

Dry, hard, dark brown, dirty or sticky asafetida, as well as 
one which shows a brown color in the fresh fracture, should be 
rejected. 

Ammoniacum 

N. Ammoniac. — 0. A spontaneous exudation from the stem and 
root of Dorema Ammoniacum, and probably also other species of 
Dorema; Umbelliferce. — H. Persia and Turkestan. — D. In round- 
ish or irregularly globular tears, from 2 to 6 mm. or more in di- 
ameter, sometimes agglutinated into small masses, pale yellow- 
ish-brown externally, breaking with a conchoidal fracture, and 
on being freshly broken bluish-milkwhite and opalescent 
within; hard at ordinary temperature, but softening by the 
warmth of the hand; odor peculiar, balsamic, and taste bitter, 
nauseous and acrid. — C. A small amount of volatile oil, 60 to 70 
per cent resin, about 20 per cent gum, etc. When triturated with 
water it yields a white emulsion. — U. Antispasmodic and blen- 
norrhetic, resembling asafetida in action. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. 

Ammoniac deteriorates with age, and dark colored gum-resih 
with but a faint odor should be rejected. 

Cake ammoniac is a variety of ammoniac that exudes spon- 
taneously (or from the stings of insects) from the roots of the 
plant, and usually contains vegetable impurities, sand, earth, 
and tears of ammoniac, agglutinated into a brown mass; it 
should not be used for medicinal purposes. 

Myrrha 

N. Myrrh. — O. A gum-resin obtained by spontaneous exuda- 
tion from the bark of Commiphora (Balsamodendron) Myrrha; 
Burseracece. — H. Eastern Africa and Southwestern Arabia. — D. 
Roundish translucent, friable, reddish-brown tears or irregular 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 539 

masses, very variable in size, rough and powdery on the outer 
surface (from attrition) with waxy or fatty fracture, sometimes 
marked with whitish veins ; balsamic odor and bitter, acrid 
taste. — C. 2 to 4 per cent volatile oil, 25 to 45 per cent resin and 
40 to 60 per cent gum, etc. When triturated with water, myrrh 
yields a brownish-yellow emulsion. — U. Tonic, blennorrhetic, ex- 
pectorant and emmenagogue. Dose: 0.25 to 2 grams. 

Clean, semitransparent pieces ought always to be selected for 
medicinal use, and dark, opaque pieces should be rejected. 

Olibanum 

N. Olibanum, Incense, Frankincense, Thus. — 0. An exudation 
from the bark of Boswellia Carterii and other varieties of Bos- 
wellia; Terebiuthacece. — H. Eastern Africa and Arabia. — D. Round 
or oblong tears of various sizes, but generally averaging about 
15 mm. in length, covered with a whitish dust formed by the 
attrition of the pieces, hard, brittle, with waxy fracture, pale 
reddish-yellow, translucent; when masticated it softens and 
forms a whitish emulsion with the saliva ; odor balsamic and 
taste bitterish.— C. 4 to 7 per cent volatile oil, 50 to 70 per cent 
resin, 30 to 40 per cent gum, etc. — U. Stimulant blennorrhetic. 
Dose: 1 to 5 grams. Mainly used in plasters, fumigating pastilles 
or in incense for church use. 

Galbanum 

N. Galbanum. — O. A gum-resin which exudes spontaneously 
from the lower part of the stem of Ferula gaXbanif.ua, and prob- 
ably other varieties of Ferula ; Umbelliferce. — H. Persia. — D. In 
separate tears from the size of a pin's head to that of a pea, but 
more commonly more or less agglutinated into lumps; light yel- 
lowish to greenish-brown externally, internally paler in color, 
but rarely whitish; softens from the warmth of the hand; odor 
very peculiar, strong, balsamic, and taste bitter and acrid. — 
C. 6 to 9 per cent volatile oil, 60 to 65 per cent resin, 15 to 20 
per cent gum, etc. When triturated with water it yields a whit- 
ish emulsion. — U. Stimulant blennorrhetic. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram. 
Mainly used externally in plasters; irritant and suppurative; or 
as an ingredient of incense used for religious purposes. 



540 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

GROUP LXXX 

Eesins 

Authors are not agreed on the proper methods of grouping 
resins, oleo-resins and balsams, or in their definitions of what 
these substances are. For instance, what we shall call oleo-resins 
are called "balsams" by Berg; substances which Ave shall call 
"balsams" are included in "resins" by Berg and Maisch; we 
will therefore define what we mean by these several groups in 
the introductory description of each group, but must consider 
the general facts now, so that we may understand the relation of 
these various substances to each other. 

It is probable that in the vast majority of all plants a substance 
is formed which is of the nature of what is generally called a 
"volatile oil;" while this name is not strictly correct or scientific, 
none of the terms suggested as substitutes for it have ever met 
with popular acceptance. Volatile oils are odorous volatile 
liquids, which cause greasy stains upon paper, resembling those 
produced by fixed oils, but differing from the latter by disap- 
pearing when the stained paper is heated, or spontaneously in 
the course of time. They are freely soluble in or miscible with 
alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzin, benzol, fixed oils and bisul- 
phide of carbon, but only to a very limited extent in water. 
Most of them exist ready formed in the plants, but some few, as 
oil of mustard and oil of bitter almond, are produced by peculiar 
fermentative processes of certain plant-elements in presence of 
water. 

Volatile oils are usually obtained from their plant sources by 
distillation, but sometimes, as in the case of orange and lemon 
oils, by mechanical methods. 

These oils may undergo a peculiar change, termed resinifica- 
tion, either while still in the plant-cells, living or dead, or after 
they have been separated, in their containers. The resin which 
is formed during this change (oxidation) may remain in solution 
in the unchanged volatile oil, when the mixture of the two con- 
stitutes an oleo-resin; this fluid solution of resin in volatile oil 
may be obtained by making incisions, etc., in the plant, and may 
come into trade as oleo-resin (also called "terebinthia" or "tur- 
pentine") as in the case of copaiba or Canada turpentine; or it 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 541 

may exude spontaneously and the volatile oil may then evaporate, 
leaving* the resin alone as a solid exudation on the outer surface of 
the stem or other part of the plant ; or the resin may be deposited 
in the cells of the plant (often in special cells or containers, Avhich 
are termed "resin-ducts," "resin-cells," etc.), in which case they 
may be obtained for trade by heating the wood or other plant- 
part which contains the resin, or by dissolving out with some sol- 
vent and then evaporating the solvent; or b} x precipitating the 
solution of resin in alcohol or other solvent by pouring into water, 
decanting after settling and recovering the solvent by distillation 
from the water. 

The oleo-resin existing in the plant may also contain benzoic, 
cinnamic or similar aromatic acids, and whether gathered in the 
liquid form, as an oleo-resin containing these balsamic acids, or as 
resins with the volatile oil evaporated, the result is a " balsam ; ' ' 
the characteristic which makes it a balsam being the presence of 
the balsamic acid or acids, not the presence or absence of the 
volatile oil. 

To come now to the consideration of this group, the resins. 
Resins are solid substances, fusible at a comparatively low heat, 
decomposable at a high heat, combustible, burning with a sooty 
flame, insoluble in water, soluble in the same solvents as volatile 
oils, Avhile some are also soluble (saponifiable) in alkaline liquids 
and ammonia. 

The latter kind of resins act chemically as acids and are 
termed resin-acids. Most resins consist of a mixture of resins 
which can be separated and which have different chemical prop- 
erties; in such cases they are distinguished by prefixing Greek 
names of letters, thus "alpha-resin," "beta-resin," etc., those 
having the most active behavior as acids being designated by 
the first letters. 

Some of the commercial resins retain insignificant quantities 
of volatile oil, or contain traces of a balsamic acid, as occasionally 
in dragon's blood, but not enough of either constituent to make 
them either oleo-resins or balsams. 

The folloAving resins exude from plants, either spontaneously 
or in consequence of incisions, punctures by insects or other in- 
juries: Mastic, sandarac, dammar, copal, dragon's blood, and 
occasionally guaiac resin ; lac is a mixture of exuded resin and 



542 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

imbedded insects, amber is a fossil resin; rosin is a residue from 
the distillation of a volatile oil from an oleo-resin; and guaiac 
resin is often prepared by melting the resin from the heart-wood 
by fire. Only a few of these drugs are of any importance as medic- 
inal agents; most of them are only used in the arts, for making 
varnishes, etc. 

Koundish, pale yellowish, transparent, brittle tears; becom- 
ing plastic when chewed Mastiche. 

Elongated, pale yellowish, transparent tears; crumbling 

when chewed Sandaraca. 

Koundish, yellowish or straw-colored transparent masses; 

harder than rosin Dammara. 

Irregular spherical or angular, yellowish to brownish pieces; 

transparent; hard Copal. 

Brittle, dark reddish-brown, opaque lumps Resina Draconis. 

Brittle, dark reddish-brown sticks; often wrapped in palm 

leaves Resina Draconis. 

Irregular brittle masses, or large tears; greenish-brown to 

reddish-brown G-uaiaci Resina. 

Small twigs surrounded by a brown-red resinous substance. .Lacca. 

Thin, brittle, brown or reddish-brown scales Lacca. 

Eoundish or flat, pale yellowish to brownish-red pieces; dull 

exterior, glossy transparent within Succinum. 

Yellowish or brownish, transparent, brittle masses Resina. 

Mastiche 

N. Mastic. — 0. A concrete resinous exudation, obtained by in- 
cisions in the stem of the male plant of Pisiacia Lentiscus; Anacar- 
diacece. — H. Greek archipelago, Island of Chios, and other Medi- 
terranean countries. — D. Globular or elongated tears, about the 
size of peas, covered with a whitish dust (from attrition), pale 
yellowish, transparent, with vitreous fracture; brittle, but be- 
comes plastic when chewed (differentiation from sandarac) ; bal- 
samic odor, especially when warmed, and a mild terebinthinate 
taste. — C. Trace of volatile oil, 80 to 90 per cent alpha-resin, 
soluble in cold alcohol, 10 per cent soft, sticky beta-resin, insol- 
uble in cold alcohol; mastic is completely soluble in ether, but 
only partially soluble in alcohol. — U. Mild stimulant, but used 
almost exclusively for temporarily filling teeth, making var- 
nishes, etc. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 543 

Mastic in sorts consists of tears that are gathered from the 
ground after having dropped from the stem of the tree ; it is 
a mixture of tears, often agglutinated and mixed with bits of 
bark, sand, earth, etc. 

Mastic is sometimes adulterated with sandarac ; the tears of 
the latter are of about the same appearance, but more elongated, 
and they crumble when chewed. 

Sandaraca 

N. Sandarac. — 0. A spontaneous, concrete, resinous exudation 
from the stems and branches of Callitris quadrivalvis; Coniferce. — 
H. Northwestern Africa (the whole of Barbary). — D. Elongated, 
hard, brittle tears, about 5 to 15 mm. long, covered with a whitish 
dust (from attrition), pale yellowish, transparent, with vitreous 
fracture; crumbles when chewed (differentiation from mastic) ; 
odor and taste slightly terebinthinate and balsamic. — C. Three 
resins, differing in solubility; soluble in ether and hot alcohol, 
partly soluble in volatile oils and chloroform. — U. Mainly for fine 
varnishes. 

Dammara 

N. Dammar. — 0. and H. A spontaneous concrete exudation 
from Agathis Dammara, a tree of the East Indian islands, and 
Agatkis australis, a tree of New Zealand; Coniferce. — D. Trans- 
parent colorless to straw-colored roundish masses, with vitreous 
conchoidal fracture ; softer than copal, but considerably harder 
than rosin; nearly odorless and tasteless. "Kauri gum," the 
New Zealand variety of dammar, is often in large lumps; it also 
often has a faint greenish tint, — C. Several resins, of which one 
constituting about 60 per cent of the drug is soluble in alcohol. — 
U. Used exclusively for making varnishes. 

Copal 

N. Copal; the word is indeclinable and neuter. — 0. A sponta- 
neous, concrete resinous exudation from several varieties of Tra- 
chylobium, Hymencea and Guibourtia; Leguminosce. — H. Africa, 
West Indies and South America. — D. Irregular, spherical, flat or 
angular pieces, almost as hard as amber, transparent or trans- 



544 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

lucent, varying from almost colorless or pale yellowish, to yel- 
lowish-brown and reddish-brown; with vitreous conchoidal frac- 
ture; becomes changed or decomposed by melting; odorless and 
tasteless. — C. Several resins of different solubilities, but all not 
readily soluble in cold alcohol or oil of turpentine. — U. For mak- 
ing varnishes. 

Some authors state that copal is also found in a fossil state; 
Maisch, for instance, says this of both copal and Kauri gum, or 
New Zealand dammar, which latter resin is occasionally sold as 
copal. Berg, however, gives very weighty reasons for doubting 
that copal ever occurs as a fossil substance, 

Resina Draconis 

N. Sanguis Draconis, Dragon's Blood. — 0. A spontaneous resi- 
nous exudation from the fruits of Daemonorops (Calamus) Draco 
or other species of Daemonorops; Palmacece. — H. Borneo, Suma- 
tra, and other East Indian islands. — D. Occurs in the drug trade 
usually in dark, brownish-red, opaque sticks, about 1.5 cm. thick 
and up to 30 cm. long, wrapped in palm-leaf and tied with thin 
strips of cane, or fibers of bast; the fracture is dull, irregular, 
and somewhat brighter colored than the external surface. It 
also occurs in cakes, or irregular lumps, of the same general 
appearance as that in sticks, but apt to be mixed with impurities. 
The best variety is in tears, varying in size from that of a pea to 
that of a hazelnut, or even up to that of a walnut ; usually covered 
with a red dust (from attrition), and gives a deep-red mark on 
paper. This variety is not often met with. Odorless and nearly 
tasteless. — C. About 90 per cent of a red acid resin, 2 per cent 
fatty matter, 5 per cent mineral substances, etc., with occasionally 
traces of benzoic or cinnamic acid (?) ; it is almost completely 
soluble in alcohol, chloroform, benzol and alkalies. — U. Mild 
stimulant, occasionally used in plasters. Mainly used for mak- 
ing varnishes and lacquers. 

Similar substances were formerly obtained from Dracama Draco 
in the Canary islands ; from Pterocarpus Draco in the West Indies ; 
Dracmna schizantha, in the island of Socotra ; from Croton 
Draco in Mexico, and from other sources, but only the above de- 
scribed article from the East Indian islands is now to be found in 
the trade. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 545 

Guaiaci Resina 

N. Guaiac Resin. — 0. A concrete resinous exudation, obtained 
spontaneously or by making incisions in the bark of the stem of 
Guaiacum officinale; Zygophyllacece. Or the resin is melted out of 
the heart-wood of this plant by means of fire, or by boiling shav- 
ings of the wood in salt brine and skimming off the resin as it 
rises to the surface. — H. "West Indies and Northern parts of South 
America. — D. 1. In roundish or ovate tears, 1 to 2.5 cm. in di- 
ameter, covered externally with a greenish dust (from attrition), 
internally transparent, greenish or reddish-brown, breaking with 
a glossy conchoidal fracture ; softens by the heat of the hand, 
but becomes tough when chewed ; odor feebly aromatic, remind- 
ing of vanilla, taste somewhat acrid. 2. In irregular brittle 
masses, formed by the agglutination of smaller lumps or tears, 
also generally with a greenish dust on the outer surface, with a 
vitreous fracture, but transparent only at the edges or in thin 
pieces or splinters ; otherwise with the characteristics of guaiac 
resin in tears. — C. About 15 to 30 per cent impurities, consisting 
of fragments of bark, etc.; about 80 per cent resin, consisting of 
a small quantity of guaiacic acid and several resins (alpha-resin, 
beta-resin, etc.) ; guaiacol, and other constituents. Soluble in 
alkalies, alcohol, acetone, ether and chloroform; the alcoholic 
solution is colored blue on the addition of oxidating agents, 
ozone, ferric chloride, chlorine, chromic acid, etc. — U. Diapho- 
retic, diuretic, alterative, stimulant. Dose: 0.5 to 1 gram three 
times a day. 

Lacca 

N. Lac, Shellac. — 0. A peculiar resinous substance, consisting 
of resins exuded from various plants in consequence of the stings 
from the female insects of Coccus Lacca; Hemiptera. As the 
resins exude they are formed into cell-like structures, mixed 
with certain excretions and coloring matters from the insects 
which live in these cells. The best and most highly colored lacs 
inclose the dead insects. The plant from which lac is mainly 
produced is Aleurites laccifera (EupJiorbiacece), but also from 
other trees belonging to various families. — H. East India and 
East Indian islands. — D. Lac occurs in the trade in several forms, 
so that the different varieties must be separately described. 



546 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

1. Stick-lac. The original form in which the drug is obtained. 
After the exudation has been formed as above described, the 
small branches die ; the female insects also die after each having 
deposited 20 to 30 ova in its cell; the encrusted twigs are gath- 
ered before the eggs have developed into insects, as in the latter 
case the young insects consume the red substance of the dead 
mother insects, thus decreasing the value of the lac. Stick-lac 
consists of these twigs surrounded by the reddish-brown resinous 
exudation. 

2. Seed-lac. In irregular grains and fragments, consisting of 
the lac as above described, but separated from the twigs. 

3. Lump-lac. Stick-lac melted into lumps, after having been 
deprived of its coloring matter. 

4. Shellac. Same as the last except that the lac is poured out, 
while melted, on large leaves, quickly covered with another leaf 
and pressed into thin shell-like tablets or scales. This is the va- 
riety that is mainly used by druggists. Thin, glossy, transparent 
or translucent yellowish to dark brown fragments or scales; brit- 
tle and pulverizable ; odorless and tasteless. 

C. Coloring matter (lac dye) about 4 per cent; about 50 per 
cent alpha-resin, soluble in alcohol and ether, brown, and melting 
readily; beta-resin, soluble in alcohol but not in ether, hard; gam- 
ma-resin, melting readily, crystallizable, uniting readily with bases ; 
delta-resin, soft, readily fusible, very soluble in alkalies, alcohol 
and ether; and epsilon-resin, insoluble in cold alcohol, ether and 
alkalies, softens in boiling water, but melts only at higher tem- 
peratures and is decomposed thereby. The enumeration of these 
resins is made to illustrate the method of using the Greek letter- 
names and not because these 5 resins are of any special impor- 
tance. — U. Lac is used as a dye; the resin, exhausted of its color- 
ing matters, is used for sealing wax, varnishes, etc. 

Succinum 

N. Amber (the ancient "electron"). — 0. A fossil exudation 
from extinct varieties of coniferous trees, especially from Pinites 
succinifer (Picea succinifera) ; Coniferce. — H. It is found in soft- 
coal beds in Prussia, but has been found in other European coun- 
tries: Sweden, England, Holland, Germany, Poland, France, Italy 
and Spain; also in Asia, in Siberia, and in North America and 



HANDBOOK OF PHARM ACOGNOSY 547 

Greenland. The important commercial source, however, is prob- 
ably a coal-formation under the Baltic Sea, as the amber is 
found washed up b} T the waves on the southern coast of this sea, 
especially after storms; it is also dug out of the sands of the 
beach, where it has accumulated in the course of ages. — D. Round- 
ish or flat pieces, the outside usually worn and dull but capable of 
receiving a high polish, hard, brittle, with a vitreous eonchoidal 
fracture, colorless or pale yellow ("amber-colored") to reddish- 
brown, and varying from brilliant transparency through all 
grades of translucency to opacity; inodorous and tasteless, but 
gives off fragrant vapors when heated. — C. Succinic acid, traces 
of volatile oil and several resins. The "oil of amber" used in 
pharmacy is not a constituent of amber, but is a product of the 
destructive distillation of this drug. — U. Mainly used in the arts ; 
the waste chips and raspings resulting from the making of beads, 
jewelry, ornaments, mouth pieces for pipes, etc., and the inferior 
opaque and dirty pieces are used for fumigation, for making 
succinic acid and oil of amber, and for making varnishes. 

Resina 

N. Resina Pirn, Resin, Rosin, Colophony. — 0. Obtained as a 

residue in the distillation of oil of turpentine from the oleo- 
resinous exudation which is obtained by incisions in the stems of 
Pinus palustris and other varieties of Pinus; Coniferce. — H. United 
States. In Europe a similar substance is obtained from various 
pine, larch and spruce trees. — D. After oil of turpentine has been 
obtained from common turpentine, the residue which remains in 
the still is rosin; this, while still hot, is drawn off into rough 
barrels, where it hardens. For use it is broken into fragments, 
by chopping off the staves of the barrel and breaking up the mass 
within. It then forms brittle, amber-colored transparent masses, 
angular, with eonchoidal resinous or vitreous fracture; it melts 
readily; odor and taste slightly terebinthinate. — C. The anhy- 
clrid of abietic acid, convertible into abietic acid by dilute alco- 
hol; resin is soluble in alcohol, ether, volatile oils, fixed oils and 
fats, chloroform, benzol, glacial acetic acid and alkalies. — U. Mild 
stimulant, used in ointments and plasters ; also in making soaps, 
wagon or axle grease, etc. 



548 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

The lightest colored and most transparent rosin is most highly 
esteemed, and darker colored and less clear rosin is considered 
inferior. 

GROUP LXXXI 

Oleo-Resins 

For a description of the nature of the drugs of this group see 
the introductory remarks for Group LXXX. Oleo-resins vary 
from fluids to soft or plastic solids. The word "balsam" is some- 
times, but erroneously, the author thinks, applied to oleo-resins; 
its use should be confined to oleo-resins or resins containing bal- 
samic acids. 

Transparent, more or less viscid liquid; yellowish- 
brown; peculiar odor and bitter acrid taste. . Copaiba. 

Tough, plastic, nearly solid yellowish mass; tere- 

binthinate odor and taste Terebinthina. 

Soft yellowish mass, granular within; odor fennel- 
like and taste terebinthinate Elemi. 

Thick viscid, clear, transparent, pale yellowish 

liquid; odor terebinthinate Terebinthina Canadensis. 

Thick viscid liquid, similar to last, but turbid. . . .Terebinthina Veneta. 

Yellowish-brown opaque mass; plastic by warmth 
of hand, brittle when cold; conchoidal trans- 
lucent fracture Pix Burgundica. 

Dark reddish-brown opaque mass; brittle when 
cold; fracture resinous, translucent, con- 
choidal Pix Canadensis. 

Thick, sticky, viscid, blackish-brown liquid; em- 

pyreumatic terebinthinate odor Pix Liquida. 

Copaiba 

N. Copaiba, Copaiva ; often, but erroneously, called Balsam Copa- 
iva. — 0. An oleo-resin obtained by incising or boring into the stems 
of Copaifera Langsdorffii and other varieties of Copaifera Copaiba; 
Leguminosce. — H. Brazil, and along the Orinoco river in Vene- 
zuela and Northern part of South America. — D. A transparent or 
translucent, more or less viscid liquid; yellowish to yellowish- 
brown color; peculiar aromatic odor and bitter acrid taste. — C. 
About 45 to 55 per cent volatile oil, but sometimes much more, 
sometimes less, about 50 per cent hard alpha-resin, the proportion 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 549 

varying inversely as the amount of volatile oil varies; about l 1 /? 
per cent sticky beta-resin, etc. Copaiva is soluble in alcohol, 
ether, chloroform, benzin, volatile and fixed oil, etc. ; remains 
transparent when shaken with one-third of its volume of ammonia 
water, and it solidifies with about one-sixteenth of its weight of 
magnesia. — U. Stimulant blennorrhetic, diuretic, diaphoretic and 
expectorant. Dose: 0.5 to 3 or 4 grams. 

Para Copaiva is best; light colored, transparent, and contains 
from 50 to 90 per cent volatile oil. 

Maracaiba Copaiva is darker colored, sometimes turbid, contains 
from 25 to 50 per cent volatile oil, and solidifies more readily with 
magnesia. 

Terebinthina 

N. Turpentine. — 0. An oleo-resinous exudation from the stems 
of Pinus palustris and other varieties of Pinus; Conifers. It ex- 
udes spontaneously but is mostly collected in hollows or " boxes" 
cut into the sap-wood of the tree. — H. United States. In Europe 
a similar substance is obtained from various pine, larch and 
spruce trees. — D. Barely comes into trade as the liquid which it 
is when it exudes from the trees; as found in the trade some of 
the volatile oil has been lost or has resinified, and turpentine then 
is in a yellowish plastic opaque mass; becomes solid in the cold 
so that it can be broken with a granular fracture, as if it con- 
tained small quantities of water; odor peculiar (gives rise to the 
term "terebhithinate") and taste bitter and acrid. — O. 20 to 30 
per cent volatile oil, which, when separated by distillation con- 
stitutes the oil of turpentine or ' ' spirits turpentine ' ' of trade ; 
the anhydrid of abietic acid, other resins, traces of succinic acid, 
etc. See also Eesina, Group LXXX. — U. Not employed inter- 
nally, but only in plasters, etc. 

Elemi 

N. Elemi; the word is indeclinable and neuter. — 0. The source 
of this drug, as it now occurs in trade, is not positively known, 
but it is probably derived from Canarium commune (Biirseracem), 
from the stem of which it is derived by making incisions. But it 
is probably also derived from other trees. — H. Philippine Islands, 
Mexico and Brazil. — D. A yellowish, resinous mass resembling 



550 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

solidified granular honey in consistence; when old it becomes 
harder, and even friable; color variable, greenish- white, to yel- 
lowish, with occasionally brownish tint; odor strong, suggesting 
a mixture of oil of turpentine, oil of fennel and oil of lemon, and 
the taste is pungent and bitter. — C. About 10 per cent volatile oil, 
60 per cent amorphous resin, 25 per cent crystallizable resin, 
etc. — U. Stimulant, irritant. Used only in plasters. 

Terebinthina Canadensis 

N. Canada Turpentine, Canada Balsam, Balsam of Fir. — 0. Ob- 
tained by puncturing the vesicles which form on the bark of 
Abies balsamea; Coniferce. — H. Canada and Northern United 
States. — D. A perfectly clear transparent liquid, of about the 
consistence of honey, viscid, pale yellowish with sometimes a 
faint greenish tint; odor pleasantly terebinthinate and taste bit- 
terish acrid. — C. About 25 to 30 per cent volatile oil, the balance 
being mainly resin, or several resins. When exposed to air, the 
oil gradually disappears leaving a hard and perfectly clear mass; 
soluble in ether, chloroform and benzol, and partly soluble in al- 
cohol. — U. Medicinally it is seldom used, although it is a stimu- 
lant blennorrhetic. It is mainly employed in making fine photo- 
graphic varnishes, for mounting microscopic preparations, etc. 

A very similar turpentine is obtained from Abies Menziesii, 
which is called Oregon Balsam of Fir. It resembles Canada tur- 
pentine, but becomes opaque and granular with age. I have made 
hundreds of lantern slides, which were painted with transparent 
oil paints and then sealed with solidified Canada turpentine. 
Most of these are beautifully clear, although some of them were 
made more than thirty years ago. But quite a number made in 
exactly the same way, and sealed with the resin obtained from 
a certain lot of balsam, have gradually become opaque from the 
formation of stellate clusters of crystals, and it is possible that 
they were sealed with Oregon balsam of fir. I regret that I can- 
not tell how to distinguish this from the true Canada turpentine, 
as such knowledge would save many slides and microscopic prep- 
arations from being ruined. Keliable Avholesale houses can 
probably give assurance on this point by knowing from which 
region they have obtained the article. 

Venice Turpentine is also similar to Canada turpentine, but is 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 551 

always slightly turbid. It is obtained by boring holes in the 
stem of Larix Enropcea (Coniferce); these holes are closed with 
plugs, and every few days the accumulated oleo-resin is drawn off 
into bottles. It is darker colored, usually with a pronounced green- 
ish tint, and always less transparaent than Canada turpentine. 

Pix Burgnndica 

N. Burgundy Pitch. — 0. A purified oleo-resin, obtained from 
the oleo-resin of Picea (Abies) excelsa and Pinus pinaster (Pin us 
Abies), both belonging to the natural order Coniferce; the oleo- 
resin exudes spontaneously and after being gathered is melted, 
water being occasionally added ; it is then strained, and the process 
of repeatedly melting with added water and straining, finally re- 
moves all impurities and nearly all of the volatile oil, so that Bur- 
gundy pitch is almost reduced to mere resin ; in fact, Berg enumer- 
ates it among the group of resins. — H. In mountainous regions in 
Southern Europe. — D. Dull yellowish or reddish-brown, opaque or 
slightly translucent mass; hard, friable, breaking with a vitreous 
conchoidal fracture, even brittle when cold and yet plastic enough 
to gradually run together into one mass and to acquire the shape of 
the vessel in which it is kept, and to assume a level surface as a 
liquid would ; aromatic odor, taste terebinthinate but not bitter. — 
C. Volatile oil in varying proportions, water, and resin. — U. Stim- 
ulant, irritant, used only in plasters. 

Pix Canadensis, or Canada Pitch, Hemlock Pitch, sometimes er- 
roneously called Hemlock Gum, is obtained from the bark of 
aged and decaying trees of Tsuga (Abies or Pinus) Canadensis; 
Coniferce. The bark is stripped off the trees, broken in small pieces 
and boiled in water, the adherent oleo-resin rises to the top and is 
skimmed off, purified by a second boiling in water, again strained 
and allowed to separate from the water and harden. It is hard, 
brittle, yet quite plastic, dark reddish-brown, almost odorless and 
tasteless, and is used precisely like Burgundy pitch. 

Pix Liquida 

N. Tar, Pine Tar (as distinguished from coal-tar). — 0. An em- 
pyreumatic oleo-resin obtained by destructive distillation from 
the wood of different varieties of Pinus; Coniferce. — H. United 



552 HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 

States. Similar products are also prepared in Europe, but the 
native article supplies our trade. — D. A thick, viscid, sticky, 
blackish-brown liquid, opaque in bulk, transparent in thin, layers ; 
becomes thicker, granular and more opaque; odor strongly em- 
pyreumatic and terebinthinate, taste acrid empyreumatic and 
bitterish. — C. The composition is variable. Tar contains a volatile 
oil, crude acetic (pyroligneous) acid, pyrocatechin, acetone, 
phenols, creosote, etc. Tar is insoluble in water, but imparts to 
it a small proportion of its constituents ; it sinks in water. It is 
soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, volatile oils, fixed oils and 
fats, and in solutions of potassa and soda. — U. Stimulant blennor- 
rhetic in doses of 0.03 to 1 gram; externally in ointments, plasters, 
etc., when it acts as an irritant and parasiticide. 

North Carolina and Swedish tars are esteemed as best. 

Birch tar is a similar substance, made from the wood of 
Betula alba; Cupuliferw. It contains a large proportion of pyro- 
catechin, and is esteemed on account of its peculiar odor which is 
well known as the odor of Russia leather. 

Beech tar is made from the wood of Fagus Sylvatica (Cupuli- 
ferce) and is generally considered as the best source for obtaining 
creosote for internal use. 

Juniper tar, oil of cade or Oleum Cadinum, is derived from the 
wood of Juniperus oxycedrus; Coniferce. It is more liquid than 
pine tar and has a somewhat different odor. 



GROUP LXXXII 

Balsams 

As already explained in the introductory remarks to Group 
LXXX, balsams are either resins or oleo-resins in combination 
with balsamic acids — with either one or more of benzoic, cin- 
namic or other analogous acids, for instance. It is true that this 
is not the universally accepted definition for "balsam," and that 
the word balsam is used by some authors, Maisch, for instance, 
for oleo-resins with balsamic acids and by Berg for oleo-resins 
with and without balsamic acids (thus making the word synony- 
mous with oleo-resin), and in both cases making the presence of 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 553 

the volatile oil the characteristic of a balsam. If it is desirable to 
distinguish between oleo-resin and balsam, as Maisch does, and 
if the presence or absence of aromatic or balsamic acids is made 
the basis of such differentiation, then every argument would ap- 
ply equally as strongly in favor of differentiating between resins 
with and resins without balsamic acids; and if the presence of 
these acids in oleo-resins is held to constitute the characteristics 
of "balsams," then the presence of the acids is the important 
feature and not the presence of the oil, and therefore a resin con- 
taining these acids should be called a balsam also. This is done 
in the classification used in this book. No important practical 
gain is achieved by making distinction between the two kinds of 
balsam, and we therefore make none. 

A solid brown mass with whitish tears imbedded in 

it ; strong balsamic odor Benzoinum. 

Nearly solid yellowish-brown substance of uniform 

consistence; strong balsamic odor Balsamum Tolutanum. 

A thick, syrupy, brownish-black liquid; somewhat 

smoky balsamic odor Balsamum Peruvianum. 

Thick, viscid, gray, opaque, semi-solid substance; 

with agreeable balsamic odor Styrax. 

Thick, brownish-yellow, clear liquid, or almost solid 

substance; odor balsamic Liquidambar. 

Benzoinum 

N. Benzoin. — 0. A resinous balsam obtained by making in- 
cisions in the stem of Styrax Benzoin and other species of Styrax; 
Styracece. — H. Sumatra, Java and Siam. — D. Lumps or irregular 
masses of a yellowish-brown resinous substance in which tears 
are imbedded which are milk-white within; gives off fumes of 
benzoic acid when heated ; odor agreeably balsamic, taste aro- 
matic but somewhat acrid. — C. 12 to 20 per cent benzoic acid, 
about 80 per cent resins, some cinnamic acid, vanillin, etc. Ben- 
zoic acid is obtained from benzoin by sublimation, but it is also 
obtained from other sources, and especially synthetically from 
hippuric acid (the urine of horses and cows) ; this latter is called 
"German" benzoic acid. — U. Stimulant blennorrhetic, expecto- 
rant. Dose: 0.5 to 2 grams. Also for tooth-washes, cosmetics, 
etc. ; mainly for making benzoic acid. 

There are three principal kinds of benzoin: 



554 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Siam Benzoin in tears, consisting of separate tears, about 2.5 cm. 
in diameter, externally pale reddish-brown, internally waxy and 
milk-white; in small fragments translucent; very agreeable vanilla- 
like odor. This is the best variety of benzoin. 

Siam benzoin in masses, composed mainly of tears, as just de- 
scribed, but agglutinated and held in solid masses by a reddish- 
brown or brick-red resin. 

Both kinds of Siam benzoin dissolve almost entirely in moderately 
warm alcohol. 

Sumatra or Penang benzoin is in grayish-brown to chocolate-col- 
ored masses, without any distinct tears ; odor agreeable but fainter 
than that of Siam benzoin. It contains about 10 per cent cinnamic 
acid and correspondingly less benzoic acid ; also pieces of bark, etc. 

Balsamum Tolutanum 

N. Tolu Balsam, Tolu, Balsam of Tolu. — 0. A balsam which is 
obtained by making deep V-shaped incisions in the bark of My- 
roxylon toluifera; Leguminosce. — H. Venezuela and New Granada. — 
D. A light brown, slow-flowing resin, soft enough to yield to the 
pressure of the finger, but not viscid or sticky ; assumes the shape 
of the container and attains a level surface; in cold weather it be- 
comes brittle ; odor very agreeably aromatic, taste aromatic, not 
acrid. — C. About 1 per cent volatile oil (tolene), cinnamic acid 
(but little benzoic acid), benzoate and cinnamate of benzyl, one 
resin readily soluble in alcohol and one resin not soluble in alco- 
hol, etc. — U. Mildly expectorant, but only used for flavoring pur- 
poses, in syrup, as an ingredient of chewing gums, etc. 

Balsamum Peruvianum. 

N. Balsam of Peru. — 0. A balsam, obtained from Toluifera Bal- 
samum (Myroxylon Pereira); Leguminosa3. It is obtained by first 
beating the bark of the tree with the back of an axe, leaving strips 
of sound bark between the parts bruised ; the bruised bark is charred 
with torches five or six days afterwards and a week or so later it 
can be readily removed or falls off ; the bare wood is then covered 
with rags which absorb the exuding balsam, and when saturated 
these rags are taken off, gently boiled in water in which the bal- 
sam sinks, then expressed.— D. A liquid having the appearance of 
sugar-house molasses, brownish-black, in thin layers reddish or 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 555 

orange-brown and transparent ; smoky balsamic odor and bitterish 
acrid taste. — C. About 60 per cent of einnamein or benzylid cin- 
namate which is an oily aromatic liquid, about 30 per cent resin, 
about 6 per cent cinnamic acid, benzoic acid, etc. With age it 
resinifies, so that the proportion of resin increases, and it darkens 
in color. Soluble in alcohol and chloroform; partly soluble and 
miscible Avith fixed oils and fats. — U. Sometimes used internally as 
a stimulant blennorrhetic in doses of 0.5 to 2 grams. But mainly 
used as an ingredient of ointments for chillblains, sore nipples, 
ulcers and itch. 

Styrax 

N. Storax. — 0. A balsam obtained by boiling and pressure from 
the wood and inner bark of Liquidambar orientalis; Hamamelid- 
acece. — H. Asia Minor.— D. Semi-liquid, gray, opaque, viscid sub- 
stance, from which a heavier dark brown, transparent stratum 
separates on standing; odor balsamic, taste balsamic acrid. — 
C. Styrol, cinnamic acid, styracin and other cinnamic esters, resin, 
etc. — U. Stimulant expectorant, blennorrhetic. Dose: About 1 
gram several times a day. Mainly, however, externally, as an in- 
gredient of liniments and ointments. 

Liquidambar is a similar substance, obtained from Liquidambar 
styvacifltia; Hamamelidacece. This tree is found in the United 
States, Mexico, and Central America. Liquidambar, or Sweet 
Gum, varies from a clear, thick, brownish-yellow fluid to a trans- 
parent yellowish-brown resin, which breaks with a resinous frac- 
ture when cold ; plastic by the warmth of the hand; odor balsamic, 
resembling storax. and taste balsamic acrid. — C. About 5y 2 per 
cent cinnamic acid, resin, aromatic oily substance, etc. — U. Like 
those of Storax. 

GROUP LXXXIII. 

Volatile Oils. 

The nature of volatile oils has been described in the introductory 
remarks to Group LXXX. It is a question whether these substances 
should be considered as drugs and I am inclined to hold, that, with 
perhaps a very few exceptions, they should rather be held to be 
preparations. 



556 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

It is certain that they cannot be recognized by the ordinary phys- 
ical characteristics, which enable us to recognize other drugs; nor 
can the quality be judged by their appearance, as we can do more 
or less satisfactorily in the case of other drugs. 

The identity (not the quality or purity) of volatile oils can be 
recognized from an organoleptic property, the odor, but this can- 
not be described nor can an idea of it be conveyed by words. To 
say that oil of coriander has the odor of coriander conveys no 
idea to one who has not smelled coriander. The tests for purity 
are partly optical, by observing their behavior on polarized light, 
some of them rotating the plane of polarization to the right when 
they are called dextro-gyrate (dextrogyre), while some others 
rotate the plane of polarization to the left when they are called 
levo-gyrate (levogyre), while yet others are optically inactive; 
other tests are physical, as for instance, their specific gravity ; the 
color is an organoleptic test, and moreover, is very variable, since 
nearly all volatile oils are nearly colorless when fresh, while many 
become yellowish, reddish, dark red to dark brown and even dark 
blue when older. Volatile oils frequently resinify and become 
thicker as they become older. They should therefore be kept in 
well-closed containers. The main tests for purity, however, are 
chemical, and volatile oils are therefore treated of at length in 
works on pharmaceutical chemistry or on pharmacy, and in col- 
leges of pharmacy they are considered by the professor of phar- 
macy and not by the professor of materia medica and pharma- 
cognosy. 

For these reasons volatile oils will not be considered at length 
in this book, but the source and uses only will be mentioned in 
the briefest possible manner. For physical and chemical charac- 
teristics the student is referred to Remington's, Coblentz's or Cas- 
pari's Pharmacy, or one of the Dispensatories. 

In all" cases where no medicinal uses are stated the oils are 
mainly employed as perfumes in the manufacture of perfumery, 
soaps and cosmetic articles generally, but the same use is also 
made of many of those which are mentioned as medicinal agents. 

Probably the only volatile oil that need be mentioned as a drug, 
is oil of turpentine. 

A clear, limpid liquid with terebinthinate odor Oleum Terebinthinae. 



HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 557 

Oleum Terebinthinae. 

N. Oil of Turpentine, Spirits of Turpentine, generally spoken 
of as "turpentine." — 0. Obtained by distillation from the oleo- 
resin of Pinus palustris and other varieties of Pinus; Coniferm.— 
H. The Southeastern States of the United States furnish the oil of 
turpentine used in this country. — D. A clear, limpid, neutral 
liquid, with a terebinthinate odor and bitterish terebinthinate 
taste. — C. It is the type of the terpenes, or hydrocarbons: C 10 H 1C ; 
bromine and powdered iodine act violently on it ; it ignites on being- 
added to a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids. — U. As a stim- 
ulant blennorrhetic ; it has a peculiar and almost specific action in 
typhoid fever, in which it is very highly esteemed. Dose: 0.3 to 
2 c.c. in emulsion. Also used as a vehicle or solvent in paints, 
varnishes, etc., and as an ingredient of liniments. 

Oil of Allspice, Oleum Pimentce; obtained by distillation from the 
fruit of Pimento officinalis (Eugenia Pimenta); Myrtacece. Stim- 
ulant, stomachic and carminative. Dose: 0.2 to 0.3 c.c. (3 to 5 
drops ) . 

Oil of Amber, Oleum Succini ; obtained by the destructive dis- 
tillation of amber, afterwards rectified. Stimulant and antispas- 
modic. Dose: 0.3 to 0.5 c.c. (5 to 10 drops). 

Oil of Anise, Oleum Anisi; obtained by distillation from the fruits 
of Pimpinella Anisum; Umoelliferce. Stimulant, carminative. Dose : 
0.3 to 0.5 c.c. (5 to 10 drops). 

Oil of Bay, Oil of Bayberry, Oil of Myrcia, Oleum Myrcice; a 
volatile oil distilled from the leaves of Myrcia acris; Myrtacece. 
Used in making bay rum. 

Oil of Bergamot, Oleum Bergamottw ; obtained by expression 
from the rind of the fresh fruit of Citrus Bergamia; Rutacew 
( Aurantiacece ) . Used as a perfume. 

Oil of Bitter Almond, Oleum Amygclalce Amarce; produced by 
distillation from bitter almonds macerated with water, the oil being 
formed by the reaction of water on amygdalin by the intervention 
of emulsin; amygdalin and emnlsin are constituents of the seeds 
of Prunus Amygdalus-amara; Rosacea 7 . Acts as a powerful de- 
pressant, like hydrocyanic acid. Dose : y± of a drop, cautiously 
increased until an effect is noticed. Also nsecl as a flavor in weak 
dilutions. See, also, oil of mirbane. 



558 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Oil of Cajuput, Oil of Cajeput, Oleum Cajuputi; distilled from 
the leaves of Melaleuca Leucadendron; Myrtacece. Stimulant, car- 
minative ; in colic ; externally in rheumatism, etc. Dose : 0.3 to 1 
c.c. (5 to 20 drops). 

Oil of Caraway, Oleum Cari; distilled from the fruits of Carum 
Carui; Umbelliferce. As a flavor, and as a stimulant carminative; 
prevents griping. Dose: 0.05 to 0.5 (1 to 8 drops). 

Oil of Cardamom, Oleum Cardamomi; distilled from the seeds of 
Elettaria Cardamomum; Zingiberacece. Used as a flavor. 

Oil of Cassia, Oleum Cinnamomi; a volatile oil distilled from the 
bark of Cinnamomum Cassia, derived from undetermined species 
of Cinnamomum; Lauracece. Carminative ; in colic, etc. Dose : 
0.05 to 0.3 c.c. (1 to 5 drops). 

Oil of Ceylon Cinnamon is similar, but not often used. 

Oil of Cedarwood, Oleum JunipeH Ligni; distilled from the wood 
of Red Cedar, Juniperus communis; Coniferce. For use in micro- 
scopical work and with homogeneous immersion lenses. 

Oil of Citronella, Oleum Andropogonis Nardi; obtained by dis- 
tillation from Andropogon Nardus; Graminacece. Used as a per- 
fume. 

Oil of Cloves, Oleum Caryophylli; obtained by distillation from 
the unopened flowers of Eugenia aromatica; Myrtacece. Stimu- 
lant, aromatic and carminative ; also local narcotic in toothache 
from carious teeth. Dose: 0.05 to 0.3 c.c. (1 to 5 drops). 

Oil of Copaiba, Oleum Copaibae; obtained by distillation from 
Copaiba. Stimulant and alterative, blennorrhetic and anti-gonor- 
rhceic. Dose: 0.05 to 0.75 c.c. (1 to 12 drops). 

Oil of Coriander, Oleum Coriandri; obtained by distillation from 
the fruit of Coriandrum sativum; Vmbelliferce. Carminative, but 
used mainly as a delicate and agreeable flavoring agent in elixirs, 
etc. 

Oil of Cubeb, Oleum Cubebce; distilled from the unripe fruit of 
Piper Cubeba; Piper acem. Stimulant, blennorrhetic and anti- 
gonorrhceic. Dose: 0.5 c.c. (about 8 drops), gradually increased 
as necessary. 

Oil of Dill, Oleum Anethi; distilled from the fruit of Anethum 
graveolens; Umbelliferce. Carminative. Dose: 0.05 to 0.25 c.c. (1 
to 4 drops). 

Oil of Erigeron, see Oil of Fleabane. 



HANDBOOK OP PHARMACOGNOSY 559 

Oil of Eucalyptus, Oleum Eucalypti; obtained by distillation 
from the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus; Myrtacece. Antispasmodic 
and antineuralgic. Dose: 0.3 to 0.5 c.c. (5 to 10 drops), in cap- 
sules. 

Oil of Fennel, Oleum Fceniculi; distilled from the fruit of Fozni- 
culum vulgare; Umbelliferce. Carminative, antispasmodic. Dose: 
0.3 to 1 c.c. (5 to 15 drops). 

Oil of Fleabane, Oil of Canada Fleabane, Oil of Erigeron, Oleum 
Erigerontis; obtained by distillation from the fresh-flowering herb 
of Erigeron Canadense; Composites. Acts like oil of turpentine in 
diarrhoeas, dysentery and hemorrhages. Dose: 0.5 to 1 c.c. (10 to 
15 drops) in capsules. 

Oil of Ihlang-Ihlang, see Ylang-Ylang. 

Oil of Juniper, Oleum Juniperi; a volatile oil distilled from the 
fruit of Juniperus communis; Coniferee. Stimulant, carminative 
and diuretic. Dose: 0.3 to 0.5 c.c. (5 to 10 drops). 

Oil of Lavender Flowers, Oleum Lavandulce; distilled from the 
flowers or flowering tops of Lavandula vera; Labiatce. The best oil 
is made from the flowers alone. Mainly as flavor or perfume. 

Oil of Lemon, Oleum Limonis, Oleum Citri; obtained by mechani- 
cal means from the rind of the fruit of Citrus medica Limonum; 
Rutaceo3 ( Aurantiacece) . Used as a flavor. 

Oil of Lemon Grass, Oleum Andropogonis; distilled from An- 
dropogon citratus and other grasses of the genus Andropogon; 
Graminaceaz. As a perfume. 

Oil of Mace, Oleum Macidis; distilled from the arillus of Myr- 
istica fragrans; Myristicacece. For flavoring. 

Oil of Mirbane, Nitrobenzol, Artificial Oil of Bitter Almonds ; a 
synthetic product. As a perfume and flavor. 

Oil of Mustard, Oleum Sinapis volatile; a volatile oil obtained 
from the seeds of Brassica nigra; (Crnciferce) by maceration with 
water and subsequent distillation. The oil does not exist in the 
seed, but is produced by the decomposition of sinigrin (potassium 
myronate) under the influence of myrosin, an albuminous ferment, 
in presence of water. Used as an external stimulant and counter- 
irritant. 

Oil of Neroli, is the best grade of Oil of Orange Flowers, which 
see. The word neroli is indeclinable and neuter. 

Oil of Nutmeg, Oleum Myristicoe, Oleum Nucistae aethereum; a 



560 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

volatile oil distilled from the seeds of Myristica fragrans; Myrish- 
cacece. Carminative in doses of about 0.1 to 0.2 c.c. (2 to 3 drops), 
but mainly employed as a flavor. 

Oil of Orange Flowers, Oleum Aurantii Florum, Oil of Neroli; 
distilled from the fresh flowers of the bitter orange, Citrus vulgaris; 
Rutacew ( Aurantiacea \) . Used for flavoring and perfume. 

Oil of Orange Peel, Oleum Aurantii Corticis; a volatile oil ob- 
tained by expression from the rind of the bitter orange, Citrus vul- 
garis, or the sweet orange, Citrus Aurantium Sinensis; Rutacece 
(Aurantiacece). Used for flavoring and perfume. 

Oil of Origanum; commercial oil of origanum is oil of thyme, 
which see. 

Oil of Patchouli, Oleum Pogostemonis, distilled from the leaves 
of Pogostemon Patchouli; Labiatce. The word patchouli is indeclin- 
able and neuter. Used in perfumery mainly on account of its con- 
ferring lasting properties on other more delicate and evanescent 
perfumes. 

Oil of Pennyroyal, Oleum Hedeomce; distilled from the leaves 
and flowering tops of Hedeoma pidegioides; Labiatce: Carminative 
and emmenagogue. Dose : 0.1 to 0.5 c.c. (2 to 10 drops). Used also 
as a local application to keep away mosquitos. 

Oil of Peppermint, Oleum Menthae Piperitce; obta^H h^ dis- 
tillation from the whole plant Mentha piperita; Labiatce. Stimu- 
lant carminative in flatulence, colic, etc. Dose: 0.1 to 0.3 c.c. (2 
to 5 drops). 

Oil of Rhodium (genuine) is said to be obtained from the root 
(wood?) of Convolvulus scoparius (?) or from Genista Canaden- 
sis (?), authors not agreeing on the subject. Commercial oil of 
rhodium is said to be a mixture of 1 part of oil of rose with 20 
parts oil of copaiba ; it is used as a lure or bait for rats and other 
animals, and is also said to be used by tamers and trainers of 
animals. 

Oil of Rose, Oleum Rosee-, Otto of Roses, Attar of Roses; obtained 
by distillatiou from the fresh flowers of Rosa Damascene; Rosacece. 
Used for flavoring and perfumery. 

Oil of Rosemary, Oleum Rosmarini; a volatile oil distilled from 
the leaves of Rosmarinus officinalis; Labiatce* Stimulant carmina- 
tive in doses of 0.1 to 0.3 c.c. (2 to 5 drops), but mainly used as 
an external stimulant in liniments. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 561 

Oil of Rue, Oleum Butce; distilled from the whole herb Buta 
graveolens; Butacece. Local irritant; in large doses causing in- 
testinal inflammation and convulsions ; used as an emmenagogue in 
doses of 0.1 to 0.3 c.c. (2 to 5 drops) every 2 or 3 hours. 

Oil of Sandal Wood, Oleum Santali, Oil of Santal; obtained by 
distillation from the wood of Santal um album; Santalacece. Blen- 
norrhetic, anti-gonorrhoeic. Dose: About 1 c.c. in capsules. 

Oil of Sassafras, Oleum Sassafras; obtained by distillation from 
the bark of Sassafras variifolium ; Lauracece. Used for flavoring. 
The word sassafras is indeclinable and neuter. 

Oil of Savin, Oleum Sabince; distilled from the tops of Juni- 
peras Sabina; Conifera:. Powerful emmenagogue, in large doses 
abortifacient, and gastrointestinal irritant and poison. Dose: 
0.1 to 0.3 c.c. (2 to 5 drops) ; a quantity sufficiently large to pro- 
duce abortion is very apt also to kill the woman. 

Oil of Spearmint, Oleum Mentha Viridis; obtained by distilla- 
tion from the fresh-flowering herb Mentha viriclis; Labiatec. Stim- 
ulant carminative in flatulence, colic, etc. Dose : 0.1 to 0.3 c.c. 
(2 to 5 drops). 

Oil of Star Anise, Oleum Illieii; most of the commercial oil of 
anise is really oil of star anise. See Oil of Anise. 

Oil of Sweet Birch, Oleum Betulcc Volatile; a volatile oil from 
the bark of Betula lent a; Betulacea. Nearly identical with oil of 
wintergreen, and used in the same manner. See Oil of Winter- 
green. 

Oil of Tansy, Oleum Tanaceti; distilled from the leaves of 
Tanacetum vulgare; Compositce. Sometimes used for criminal pur- 
poses, to produce abortion; very uncertain and very dangerous in 
its action. 

Oil of Tar, Oleum Picis Liquidce; a volatile oil distilled from 
pine tar. Blennorrhetic, expectorant. Dose: 0.05 to 0.3 c.c. (1 to 
5 drops). 

Oil of Thyme, Oleum Thy mi; this oil is also usually sold as 
"oil of origanum;" obtained by distillation from the leaves and 
flowering tops of Thymus vulgaris; Labiates. Diffusible stimulant 
and antiseptic. Dose: 0.1 to 0.5 or 1 c.c. (2 to 8 or 15 drops). 

Oil of Wintergreen, Oleum Gaultheria; a volatile oil distilled 
from the fresh leaves of Gaultheria procambens; Ericacece. Mainly 



562 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

used for flavoring, but is occasionally used as an anti-rheumatic, 
like salicylic acid. 

Oil of Worm-seed, Oleum Chenopodii, Oil of American Worm- 
seed; obtained by distillation from the fruit of Chenopodium am- 
brosioides, var. anthelminticum; Chenopodiacece. Anthelmintic. 
Dose: 0.25 to 0.5 c.c. (4 to 8 drops) for a child, morning and 
evening, followed by a brisk cathartic. 

Oil of Ylang-Ylang, distilled from the flowers of Cananga 
odorata; Anonacece. Used only in the manufacture of perfumery. 

GROUP LXXXIV. 

Fixed Vegetable Oils and Fats. 

Fixed oils and fats are contained in the cells of many plants, 
especially in the seeds of many plants. From these sources they 
may be obtained by expression between warmed steel cylinders, 
more rarely by boiling in water and skimming, or by the aid of 
solvents, such as benzin, benzole, ether, bisulphide of carbon, etc. 

Fatty oils are neutral, lighter than water and insoluble in it, 
only slightly soluble in alcohol, except castor oil, which is freely 
soluble in it, usually colorless or pale yellowish, more or less 
bland and insipid, not volatilizable, burn with a clear flame by 
aid of a wick, make permanent fatty stains in bibulous paper, 
rendering the paper translucent. Exposed to the air, they grad- 
ually absorb oxygen and become rancid (non-drying oils) or dry 
to a transparent hard substance (drying oils). 

In composition they vary somewhat, but consist mainly of a mix- 
ture of fatty bodies termed glycerides, of which stearin, palmitin 
and olein are the more important ones; stearin and palmitin pre- 
ponderate in the solid fats, olein in the fluid fats or oils. By the 
action of strong bases these glycerides are decomposed, the base 
uniting with the stearic, palmitic and oleic acids of the glyceride 
and glycerin being liberated or produced. If the base used for 
this purpose is an alkali, as when potash or soda lye is used, the 
salts of the fatty acids are called soaps; if the base is litharge 
(an oxide of lead), the resulting salts of the fatty acids are called 
plasters. 

We will divide the vegetable oils into three subdivisions to 
facilitate recognition: Solid Fats, Soft-Solid or Semi-Liquid 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 563 

Fats, and Liquid Fats or Oils. It is customary to call all of them 
"oils," regardless of their consistence. 

A division into "Drying Oils" and "Non-drying Oils" is, of 
course, of no value in a system of pharmacognosy intended for 
the use of the retail pharmacist, even though by the addition of 
nitrous acid, which causes non-drying oils to solidify within a 
few days, the distinction can be made. 

But it is of value to know that drying oils are of use in paints 
and varnishes, and in making the "body" of tube oil colors, etc. 
The most important drying oil is linseed oil; poppy oil, walnut 
seed oil and hempseed oil are also drying oils, used in the prep- 
aration of artists' materials, but of no importance to pharmacists. 

Unfortunately, in this group, as in the previous one, the or- 
ganoleptic properties of odor and taste, which cannot be de- 
scribed, are the most reliable characteristics for identification 
and the student is advised to familiarize himself with them. 

The animal oils and fats have been considered in their proper 
places. Groups, VI, VII, and VIII. 

Solid Vegetable Fats 

Consistence of tallow, yellowish-white, odor of 

chocolate Butyrum Cacao. 

Consistence of tallow, orange-colored or mottled 

white and brownish, odor of nutmeg- Butyrum Nucistse. 

Solid diaphanous substance resembling white wax. Paraffinum. 

Bear in mind also the animal fats 
Hard, white, somewhat glossy masses. (See Group 

VI) Acidum Stearicum. 

White, solid fatty masses. (See Group VI) Sevum. 

Semi-solid fats 

Of the consistence of butter or lard, granular, 

green Oleum Lauri. 

Of the consistence of butter, white; disagreeable 

odor Oleum Cocois. 

Of the consistence of butter, orange-colored; vio- 
let-like odor Oleum Palmae. 

Of the consistence of a cerate or ointment, yellow- 
ish, slightly fluorescent Petrolatum. 



564 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Bear in mind also the animal fats 
Soft, white, unctuous fatty substance. (See Group 

VII) Adeps. 

Soft, yellowish-white fatty substance. (See Group 

VII) Adeps Lanae. 

Liquid Oils 

Thin, clear, pale yellow oil, with nutty odor and 

bland taste 01. Amygdalae Expressum. 

Pale yellow oil, without odor and with a bland 

nutty taste 01. Gossypii Seminis. 

Yellowish to yellowish-brown oil, with peculiar 

odor and bland taste 01. Lini. 

Pale yellow, or light greenish-yellow oil, peculiar 

odor and nutty taste 01. Olivse. 

Viscid, nearly colorless oil, odor mildly nauseous; 

taste bland, but afterwards acrid. 01. Ricini. 

Yellowish oil, odorless, and with a bland, nut-like 

taste 01. Sesami. 

Yellowish-brown, somewhat viscid; odor unpleas- 
ant and taste acrid 01. Tiglii. 

Bear in mind also the animal oils 

Yellowish to brownish oil with fishy odor. (See 

Group VIII) 01. Morrhuse. 

Pale yellowish or colorless fixed oil. (See Group 

VIII) 01. Adipis. 

Pale yellow to yellowish-brown oil. (See Group 

VIII) 01. Bubulum. 

Oleum Theobromatis Expressum 

N. Butyrum Cacao, Oil of Theobroma, Butter of Cacao. — 0. Ob- 
tained by expression between Heated plates from the seeds of 
Theobroma Cacao; Sterculiacece. — H. South America. — D. Yel- 
lowish-white, becoming white by age, solid, harder than tallow; 
odor aromatic, taste bland and chocolate-like. — C. Stearin, olein, 
etc.; sp. gr. about 0.96 to 0.97 at 25° C. — U. For making sup- 
positories. 

Oleum Myristicae Expressum 

N. Oleum Nucistw, Butyrum Nucistce, Butter of Nutmeg. — 
0. Obtained by expression between heated plates from the ground 
seeds of MyriMica fragrans; Myristicacece. — H. Cultivated in the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 565 

Molucca Islands. — D. Brick-shaped blocks, of- the consistence of 
tallow, granular, orange-colored or mottled white and brownish; 
odor and taste aromatic, nutmeg-like. — C. About 25 to 30 per 
cent mvristin, olein, palmitin, some volatile oil; sp. gr. about 
0.995. — U. Mainly employed externally in ointments; of no par- 
ticular medicinal value. 

Paraffinum 

N. Paraffine. — 0. Obtained from the solid residues when coal- 
oil, etc., are distilled from crude rock-oil or petroleum ; also 
from minerals saturated with hydrocarbons, especially shale. 
We have neither time nor space to discuss here whether these 
substances are altogether, or even mainly, fossil oils of vegetable 
origin as is generally held, or whether they are also in part, or 
mainly, or altogether, the product of animals of previous geologic 
ages, as is contended by others, or mixtures of the two. We 
simply accept the generally received theory and ascribe them to 
vegetable origin without wishing to have this construed into 
an expression of opinion on a mooted question in a department 
of science on which the writer possesses insufficient knowledge to 
entitle him to express an opinion. Fossil or rock oils bear the 
same relation to recent vegetable (or animal?) oils as does amber 
to recent oleo-resins and resins, or does asphaltum to recent 
pitch. — D. A white, waxy substance, harder than tallow, softer 
than wax; odorless and tasteless. — C. Made up of hydrocarbons 
between C 24 H 50 and C 27 H 5G ; sp. gr. about 0.877; it is not affected 
by strong mineral acids and is therefore used to seal stoppers in 
bottles and carboys containing the latter. — U. Medicinally, none ; 
in the arts it is used in many ways, as in paraffined paper, mak- 
ing candles, etc. 

Oleum Lauri 

N. Laurel Oil. — 0. A fixed oil obtained by macerating the 
mashed fruit of Laurus nobilis (Lauraceee) in hot water for sev- 
eral hours and then expressing. — H. Levant and Southern Eu- 
rope. — D. Of the consistence of butter or ointment, granular, 
green color; with a strong odor of the fruit; taste aromatic, 
spicy, bitter. — C. Sp. gr. about 0.85 to 0.90; laurin, olein, volatile 
oil, etc. — U. Used in liniments and ointments. A use not gen- 



566 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

erally mentioned is, that it is obnoxious to mosquitoes; more- 
over when mixed with pennyroyal oil the latter is not as readily 
dissipated as when it is applied in the form of an alcoholic 
spirit or solution. Pennyroyal oil mixed with laurel oil has 
been found an excellent protector against mosquitoes by the 
author on his fishing trips. 

Oleum Cocois 

Cocoa Nut Oil is obtained in tropical countries from the seeds 
of Cocos nucifera (Palmacece) by boiling in water and expressing. 
It is white, of the consistence of butter, and has a disagreeable 
odor because it becomes rancid so rapidly that it is rare to meet 
with a sample of fresh oil. The pulp of the cocoanut, dried in the 
sun, is called copra; this is imported and the oil is obtained from 
this by expression or decoction. Used in the making of soaps and 
hair oils, and to some extent in cosmetic preparations. 

Oleum Palmse 

Palm Oil is obtained in tropical countries from the fruits of 
Elceis Guineensis (Palmacem) by boiling the fruits in water and 
expressing. It is harder than butter, and orange-colored; odor 
violet-like, agreeable; easily becomes rancid and offensive. Used 
for making candles, soaps, etc. ; not an article in the retail drug 
trade, but much used by printers. 

Petrolatum 

N. Petrolatum, Vaseline, Cosmoline, etc. — 0. Similar to that of 
paraffine, which see. "A mixture of hydrocarbons, chiefly of 
the marsh-gas series, obtained by distilling off the lighter and 
more volatile portions from petroleum and purifying the residue 
when it has the desired melting point" (U. S. P.).— D. Of the 
consistence of a cerate or ointment; yellowish, with a slight 
greenish fluorescence. The substance may be prepared, however, 
of any consistence, from a liquid condition to that of a stiff 
cerate. In pharmacy it is mainly employed as a base or vehicle 
for ointments and therefore petrolatum of the consistence of an 
ointment (petrolatum molle, melting point about 40° to 45° C, 
sp. gr. at 60° C. 0.820 to 0.840) or of a cerate (petrolatum spissum, 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 567 

melting; point about 4,5° to 51° C, sp. gr. at 60° C. 0.820 to 0.850) 
is most frequently used. 

Oleum Amygdalae Expressum 

N. Almond Oil, Sweet Oil of Almonds. — O. Fixed oil expressed 
from the seeds of Primus Amygdalus (Amygdalus communis) ; 
Rosacece. Made from both sweet and bitter almonds, but mainly 
from the bitter variety; the press-cake of bitter almonds is then 
macerated with water and oil of bitter almonds distilled from it ; 
the press-cake of sweet almonds is ground and sold as ''almond 
meal" as a cosmetic. — H. Cultivated in the Orient, Mediterranean 
countries and California. — D. Thin, clear, pale-yellow oil with 
nutty odor and bland taste. — C. Mainly olein, a little palmitin; 
sp. gr. about 0.918. — U. Demulcent, slightly laxative. Dose: 5 to 
15 c.c, best in emulsion. 

Sometimes adulterated with the expressed oil of peach kernels; 
see tests in the pharmacopoeia. 

Oleum G-ossypii Seminis 

N. Cotton Seed Oil. — O. The fixed oil expressed from the seeds 
of Gossypium herbaceum (Malvacece) is purified and bleached. — ■ 
H. Subtropical countries ; mainly Southern part of United States. — 
D. Pale yellow oil, Avithout odor and with a bland nutty taste. — 
C. Olein, palmitin, and yellow coloring principle; sp. gr. about 
0.922 to 0.925. — U. Demulcent. Mainly used for culinary pur- 
poses, for making substitutes for lard or butter, etc. 

Oleum Lini 

N. Linseed Oil. — O. A fixed oil expressed from the seeds of 
Linum usitatissimum; Linacece. — H. Cultivated in the Levant, 
Europe and United States. — D. A yellowish to yellowish-brown 
limpid oil with peculiar odor and bland taste. — C. Mainly lino- 
lein, which makes it a " drying oil," some palmitin, myristin, etc. ; 
sp. gr. about 0.935. — U. Seldom used internally, but occasionally 
used externally as an ingredient of Carron Oil, or lime liniment, 
used as an application in burns, as a protective, Mainly used in 
paints, varnishes, etc. 



568 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Boiled Linseed Oil is prepared by boiling linseed oil with so- 
called "dryers," such as litharge, red lead, sugar of lead, manga- 
nese dioxide, etc. ; this renders it a better drying oil, but care 
must be taken that boiled linseed oil is not used internally in- 
stead of pure linseed oil, as the boiled oil is poisonous. Linseed 
oil is often used as a laxative in cases of colic in horses, cows, 
etc., and cases are on record where the administration of boiled 
linseed oil has proved fatal to such animals. 

Oleum Olivse 

N. Olive Oil, Sweet Oil. — 0. A fixed oil obtained from the fruits 
of Olea Europwa; Oleacece. There are several grades of this oil: 
Virgin Oil, obtained by cold pressure ; a second grade oil, obtained 
by mixing the press-cake with hot water and again expressing ; 
and an inferior oil obtained from the residue of this second press- 
ing after it has undergone fermentation. This last grade of oil 
is mainly used in the manufacture of Castile soap. — H. Asia and 
Southern Europe. — D. Pale yellow or light-greenish-yellow oil; 
peculiar odor and sweet, nutty taste. — C. Mainly olein, some 
palmatin, etc.; sp. gr. about 0.915. — U. As a table or salad oil; 
as a demulcent; externally in emollient and cosmetic prepara- 
tions. 

Bland fixed oils resembling olive oil in appearance and some- 
times used for adulterating olive oil, sometimes used as substi- 
tutes, but comparatively seldom employed under their own 
proper names, are made from mustard seeds, walnuts, pecans, etc. 
The latter especially is a fine salad oil, and when it can be ob- 
tained is esteemed more highly than the best olive oil. 

Oleum Ricini 

N. Castor Oil. — 0. A fixed oil expressed from the seeds of 
Ricinus communis; Euphorbiacece. — H. Cultivated. — D. A viscid, 
nearly colorless oil ; odor mildly nauseous, taste bland, but after- 
wards acrid and nauseous. — C. A peculiar modification of olein 
called ricinolein, palmitin, an acrid principle, etc.; sp. gr. about 
0.965. — U. Laxative, in large doses purgative. Dose: 5 to 25 c.c. 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 569 

Oleum Sesami 

N. Bemie-Seed Oil. — 0. A fixed oil obtained by expression 
from the seeds of Sesamum Indicum (S. orientate) ; Pedaliacece. — 
H. India; cultivated. — D. A yellowish fixed oil, limpid, transpar- 
ent, odorless, with a bland nut-like flavor. — C. Olein, palmitiu, 
stearin, etc. ; sp. gr. about 0.922. — U. Like those of olive oil. 

Oleum Tiglii 

N. Croton Oil. — 0. A fixed oil expressed from the seeds of 
Croton Tiglium; Euphorbiacece. — H. India and Philippine 
Islands. — D. A more or less viscid fixed oil, the viscidity increas- 
ing with age, varying in color from yellow to dark reddish- 
brown, the color deepening with age ; odor peculiar, taste dis- 
agreeable, acrid and irritating. — C. Glycerides of various fatty 
acids, such as tiglinic, palmitic, stearic, lauric; the purgative, 
vesicating and suppurant properties depend t upon a substance 
containing a fatty acid resembling ricinoleic acid ; sp. gr. about 
0.95. — U. Drastic cathartic. Dose: 0.05 to 0.1 gram, best given 
in an emulsion with some mild demulcent oil. Externally croton 
oil is counterirritant, vesicant and suppurative. 



GROUP LXXXV 

Peculiar Concrete Substances 

A number of substances that do not conform to the character- 
istics described under the previous groups of non-cellular vegetable 
substances are placed in this group, although they do not resemble 
each other markedly and, in fact, have no general characteristics 
in common. The group is therefore based on considerations of con- 
venience mainly. 

White, translucent, crystalline masses; peculiar penetrating 

odor and bitterish pungent taste Camphora. 

In cakes, balls, hollow bottle-shaped or irregular pieces, black- 
ish-brown, very elastic Elastica. 

Grayish or. yellowish-gray masses, streaked interiorly; not 

markedly elastic G-utta Percha. 

Light, friable, grayish-green flattish fragments; acrid, bitter. . Elaterium. 



570 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Camphora 

N. Camphor. — 0. Crude camphor is obtained by distillation 
from the chipped wood and branches of Cinnamomum (Laurus) 
Camphora; Lauracece. The crude camphor is purified by sublima- 
tion. — H. China, Japan and India. — D. White, translucent masses 
having a crystalline structure, tough and not readily pulver- 
izable unless a little alcohol, ether or chloroform is added; odor 
peculiar, strong, penetrating and persistent, taste bitterish pun- 
gent. — C. Camphoric and camphoronic acids ; composition of cam- 
phor is C 10 H 16 ; it sublimes at ordinary temperatures and vola- 
tilizes completely when exposed to the air; it burns with a bril- 
liant, though smoky flame and leaves no ash; dissolves com- 
pletely in acohol, ether, volatile and fixed oils, etc. ; sp. gr. about 
0.99. — U. Stimulant of the brain and circulation; useful in low 
fevers and typhoid conditions; also useful in cholera, etc., alone 
or in combination with opium. Anaphrodisiac and sedative in 
priapism, chordee, etc. Used externally in bruises, rheumatism, 
etc. Dose: 0.05 to 0.3 grams; as an anaphrodisiac or as a seda- 
tive in mania, up to 1 gram. 

Elastica 

N. Caoutchouc, India-Rubber ; the word caoutchouc is indeclin- 
able and neuter. — O. and H. Obtained by exudation from inci- 
sions in the stems of various trees, but especially "from the 
natural orders Euphorbiacece (Siphonia, Hevea, Jatropha), Apocy- 
nacece (TJrceola, Vahea, Landolphia), and Artocarpacece (Ficus, 
Urostigma, Castilloa, etc.)." In India Ficus elastica is the main 
source of this substance; in Africa, Landolphia florida and other 
varieties of Landolphia; in South America, Hevea Guianensis and 
other varieties of Hevea. — D. India rubber occurs in flat cakes, 
in balls or moulded into various hollow bottle-shaped masses; 
the latter are made by dipping moulds of clay into the india- 
rubber while still fluid and continuing this until the layer is suf- 
ficiently thick, then breaking the clay mould and pouring out the 
fragments of clay. Externally caoutchouc is blackish-brown, but 
internally on a cut surface, it is lighter colored and sometimes 
grayish or whitish striated. It is very elastic, odorless and with- 
out taste. — C. Consists of a mixture of polyterpenes ; but the 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 571 

principal constituent is a solid hydrocarbon, gutta, C 20 H 32 . 
Soluble in chloroform, etc. The best method of dissolving is 
said to be to change it to a jelly-like substance in carbon disul- 
phide and then dissolve this jelly in benzin. With 10 per cent of 
sulphur caoutchouc vulcanizes and forms hard rubber. — U. Ex- 
ternally for dressings and plasters. In the arts for making soft 
and hard rubber goods. 

Gutta Percha 

N. Gutta Percha, Guetah, or Guetta-pertcha, a Malay name, in- 
declinable and neuter. — 0. Obtained from incisions in Pala- 
quium oblong) folium and allied trees; Sapotacece. — H. Malayan 
peninsula and islands. — D. In masses of a grayish or grayish-white 
color, often with brownish streaks, hard, heavier than water, not 
very elastic, but flexible ; impurities can be removed from it by 
kneading in hot water. Nearly odorless and tasteless. — C. About 
80 per cent gutta (C 20 H 32 ), resins, etc.; soluble in ether, benzol, 
chloroform, carbon disulphide and oil of turpentine; sp. gr. about 
0.98; it may be vulcanized like caoutchouc. — U. Like those of 
caoutchouc. 

A peculiar substance resembling gutta percha and called 
"chicle gum" is obtained from a Mexican tree, Mimusops Batata; 
Sapotaeea' ; it is used in the manufacture of chewing gum. 

Elaterium 

N. Elaterium. — 0. A peculiar substance deposited from the 
juice of the squirting cucumber, Ecballium Elaterium; Cucurbi- 
taceai. The juice is clear when it first comes from the fruit, but 
soon becomes turbid from the elaterium which separates from it 
and is deposited. The deposit is spread in thin layers on muslin 
and then rapidly dried between sheets of bibulous paper. — D. In 
flat fragments of variable thickness, a few mm. thick, irregular 
size, easily broken, with a granular fracture, grayish or grayish- 
green, showing the impression of the muslin on one side ; a slight 
odor suggesting tea, and an acrid and very bitter taste. — C. 
About 25 to 35 per cent of elaterin; this is the only valuable con- 
stituent. Elaterin is a resinoid substance, but, constituting only 
about % of the drug, the latter cannot fairly be classed with 



572 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

the resins, as is done by some authors. — U. A powerful hydra- 
gogue cathartic. Dose: 0.008 to 0.015 gram. 

Great care should be exercised in writing, reading and dis- 
pensing elaterium and elateriimm in order that the two may not 
be confounded on account of the similarity of their names. Elat- 
erin consists of small, shining crystals, odorless, intensely bitter 
and acrid and from 3 to 4 times as active as elaterium. 

GROUP LXXXVI 

Coloring Matters 

Substances prepared by oxidation or fermentation from va- 
rious plants; or by the deposition of sediments from their juices 
extracted by water. 

More or less firm, brittle masses; blue to purplish Indigo. 

Small, rectangular, blue or bluish cakes; colors water blue Litmus. 

A. purplish-red powder, imparting a beautiful color to diluted 

alcohol Persio. 

Thick, deep reddish-purple liquid with ammoniacal odor Orchil. 

Usually an orange-red paste; sometimes dry and friable cakes Annatto. 

Indigo 

N. Indicum, Indigo ; the word indigo is indeclinable and neu- 
ter. — O. The whole plants of several varieties of Indigo f era (Le- 
guminosce) and allied plants are packed in cemented reservoirs 
a few feet deep, and then covered with water. After fermenting 
for a few days the workmen express the juice from the plants by 
jumping in the reservoir and treading the mass, at the same time 
agitating the water to facilitate oxidation. The liquid becomes 
deep blue and at the proper time is drawn off and allowed to 
deposit the coloring matter. — H. India. — D. More or less firm, 
brittle masses, of a blue to purplish-blue color, showing a bronze 
or coppery metallic appearance when pressed by a smooth hard 
body, as by the nail of the finger; odorless and tasteless. — C. 
Should contain from 70 to 80 per cent of indigo-blue or indigo- 
tin. — U. Used only as a coloring agent or dye, and in solution as 
a test solution. 

Litmus 

N. Litmus, Lacmus. — O. Made by a process of fermentation 
from lichens, including Roccella tincturia and other varieties, of 



HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 573 

Roccella, several species of Lecanora, Variolaria, etc; Lichenacece. 
The juices of the plants themselves are colorless, but become col- 
ored during the processes employed, which are under control so that 
several different and distinct coloring matters can be produced. — 
H. Mainly made in Holland. The coarsely powdered lichens are 
macerated in a mixture of urine of cattle and horses, lime and 
potash or soda ; the liquid becomes first red, finally blue ; the 
liquid is then separated, mixed with calcareous or silicious mat- 
ter and some indigo, moulded into small cakes and dried. — D. It 
occurs in rectangular, blue or bluish cakes, 2.5 cm. or less in size, 
light, friable, granular, and dotted with white saline dots; odor 
violet-like, taste somewhat saline and pungent. — C. A coloring 
matter, orcein, which is soluble in water and still more readily in 
alcohol; as it always contains chalk it effervesces with acids. — 
U. Test for acids and alkalies. In the arts as a dye. 

Persio, Cudbear, is made in a similar manner, from the same 
lichens, by macerating in an ammoniacal liquid (urine and lime), 
but probably more potash or soda is added than when making 
litmus or orchil. Cudbear is in the form of a purplish-red powder. 
Used to color elixirs, etc., and in the arts as a dye. 

Orchil or Archil is made in a similar manner, from the same 
lichens, but probably by adding but little potash or soda to the 
urine and lime. It is a thick, deep reddish-purple liquid, but 
varies in tint, some lots being more some less reddish. Used as a 
dye. 

Annatto 

N. Orleana, Annatta, Arnotta ; the word annatto is indeclinable 
and neuter. — 0. A reddish pulp surrounding the seeds of Bixa 
OreUana; Bixacece. The pulp is separated by bruising the fruit, 
mixing with water, straining, allowing the sediment to deposit 
and then forming into cakes, which are dried. — H. Guiana and 
other parts of South America. — D. Usually the cakes are quite 
soft, forming, in fact, a stiff, pasty mass; occasionally they are 
dry so that they may be broken, brownish-red, with a peculiar 
sweetish odor and a saline bitterish taste. — C. A peculiar color- 
ing principle, bixin; another called orellin; etc. — U. As a dye and 
coloring agent. Often used as a color for butter. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 



This synopsis is to be used in connection with the chart, 
"System of Pharmacognosy," for the determination of drugs 
in the ordinary business emergencies, when a specimen of drug 
of which the customer does not know the name may be brought 
in with a demand for a drug of the same kind. After a little 
practice, and especially after this book has been studied, this 
system will assist in determining the identity of such a drug. 
Our failure to recognize a drug is often not because we do not 
know the drug, but because we cannot recall its name, and, 
therefore, cannot go to the drawer or container in which it is 
kept, and in such a case this synopsis will be of immediate and 
prompt assistance. 

Suppose a customer brings in a piece of pomegranate rind; 
we see at once that it is a .vegetable substance, and this ex- 
cludes all animal drugs, or the first eight groups of drugs. We 
see at a glance that it is not a Avhole plant (excludes the ninth 
group), that it is not a cryptogam (excludes Groups X to XV), 
nor any underground form of structure, such as root, rhizome, 
corm or bulb (excludes Groups XVI to XXXIII), nor is it any 
part of the stem, such as twigs, pith, wood or bark (excluding 
Groups XXXIV to XLV), nor is it a leaf -bud, leaf or flower 
(thus excluding Groups XLVI to LVII) ; we now have come to 
fruits, and the specimen is evidently not a whole fruit (exclud- 
ing Groups LVIII to LXIV), but a part of fruit, and, therefore, 
belongs in Group LXV. Turning now to Group LXV in this 
synopsis we find an enumeration of the drugs which are parts 
of fruits, and merely reading the names will probably recall the 
correct name for the drug, but if not, the compendious descrip- 
tions will enable us to determine its name. We know it is not 
lemon or orange peel, and probably even the novice in the 
drug business knows that it is neither tamarinds nor white 
pepper, so that we need look up only bael fruit, mangosteen and 
pomegranate rind, and the description will tell us that it is the 



576 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY . 

latter; but, to make sure, we turn to the page indicated and 
read the description of the drug, and compare with the draw- 
ing, and thus establish the identity. 

And so for any drug, once we determine what it is; that is, 
whether it is a whole animal or plant, or a part of an animal or 
plant, or non-cellular animal or plant substance, or a starch, etc. ; 
and, while this synopsis and these notes do not contain all the 
drugs, it is believed that they contain practically all that are apt 
to be met with in actual business experience. 

While this use of the author's system of pharmacognosy is 
best made in connection with the chart, which should hang in a 
place that is convenient for ready reference, yet pages 22 to 27 of 
this book will enable the druggist to get at the same results, 
but with a little more labor and time. 



The numbers following the names constitute a page index. 

Group I 

Worms 

A live aquatic worm Hirudo, 32. 

Group II 

Insects 

Without wings ; angular granules Coccus, 33. 

With wings greenish or coppery metallic luster Cantharis, 33. 

Wings black with transverse yellow bands Mylabris, 34 

Wings black with longitudinal yellow bands. Canth. vittata, 34. 

Entire insect, brownish-black Blatta, 34. 

Group III 

Eggs 

The egg of the chicken Ovum, 35. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 577 

Group IV 

Parts of Animals Wholly or Partly Soluble in Alcohol 

or Water 

Rolls or flat pieces of tough fibrous tissue Ichthyocolla, 35. 

Long, thin, membranous ribbons . American 

Isinglass, 36. 
Round sacs, hairy on one side, smooth on the other. . . . Moschus, 36. 
Long grayish-brown sacs Castoreum, 37. 

Group V 

Parts of Animals Not Soluble in Alcohol or Water 

Anastomosing fibers Spongia, 39. 

Flattish, oval, white ' ' bones " Os Sepiae, 40. 

Group VI 

Solid Non-Cellular Animal Substances 

Round, white, calcareous stones Lapilli 

Cancrorum, 41. 

Yellow, waxy cakes, or lumps Cera Flava, 42. 

Thin, round or square cakes, waxy, white Cera Alba, 43. 

White, semi-transparent, unctuous masses of a crystal- 
line, foliaceous texture Cetaceum, 43. 

Hard, white, somewhat glossy masses Acidum 

Stearicum, 44. 

White, solid, fatty masses Sevum, 44 

Black, gritty powder Carbo Animalis, 44. 

Brown, unctuous, very odorous powder Moschus, 45. 

Cylindrical, hard, crystalline masses Saccharum Lactis, 45. 

Flat, hard, brown, transparent or translucent pieces . . . Colla, 45. 

Irregular, flat, semi-opaque, yellowish-white pieces. . . . Colla Alba, 46. 

Colorless, transparent, rectangular, flexible sheets Gelatina, 46. 

Opaque, rectangular sheets of frothy texture Gelatin, 46. 

Clear, colorless flexible shreds Shred Gelatin, 46. 

Grayish-brownish or blackish odorous masses Ambergris, 46. 

Small, hard, tenacious, odorous masses Hyraceum, 47. 

Group VII 

Semi-Solid Amorphous Animal Substances 

Soft, white, unctuous fatty substance Adeps, 47. 

Soft, yellowish-white fatty substance Adeps Lanae, 47. 

Semi-solid, unctuous, yellowish or brownish substance. . Civet, 48. 



578 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Group VIII 

Liquid Amorphous Animal Substances 

Syrupy, sweet, aromatic, sometimes granular liquid. . . . Mel, 48. 

Viscid, greenish-brown bitter liquid Fel Bovis, 49. 

Yellowish to brownish fixed oil with fishy odor Oleum Morrhuae, 49. 

Pale yellowish or colorless fixed oil Oleum Adipis, 50. 

Pale yellow to yellowish-brown oil Oleum Bubulum, 50. 

Group IX 

Herbs — Whole Plants Botanically Recognizable 

Composites : 

Yellowish florets ; leaves petiolate, pinnatifid Absinthium, 94. 

White florets ; leaves thrice pinnatifid Achillea, 94. 

White florets ; leaves connate-perf oliate Eupatorium, 95. 

Yellow ray florets ; leaves sessile, spatulate to lanceolate . Grindelia, 96. 

Yellow florets ; leaves linear-lanceolate Solidago, 97. 

Yellow tubular florets ; leaves alternate, pinnatifid Tanacetum, 97. 

Gentianece: 
Two nectaries on each petal Chirata, 99. 

Labiatce: 

Upper lip arched ; stamens 4 Cataria, 100. 

Corolla small, 2-lipped ; stamens 2 Hedeoma, 101. 

Flowers in axillary whorls; stamens 2 Lycopus, 101. 

Flowers in corymbose clusters ; stamens 4 Majorana, 102. 

Flowers in dense, woolly, axillary whorls; stamens 4 . . . Marrubium, 103. 

Flowers in small cymes; stamens 4 Melissa, 103. 

Flowers in obtuse spikes; stamens 4, short Mentha ppt., 104. 

Flowers in slender spikes ; stamens 2 Menth. virid., 104. 

Corolla long, with narrow lip ; stamens 2 Monarda, 105. 

Flowers in axillary 1-sided racemes; stamens 4 Scutellaria, 106. 

Legummosce : 
Leaves usually absent; stamens monadelphous Scoparius, 106. 

Lobeliacew : 
Leaves alternate; stamens united into a tube Lobelia, 107. 

Papaveracece : 
Flowers in long-peduncled umbels; capsule linear. ... Chelidonium, 109. 

Eanunculacece : 

Rhizomes filiform, golden-yellow Coptis, 110. 

Cluster of leaves forming an involucre some distance 

below the flower Pulsatilla, 111. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 579 

Solanacece: 
Gray-brown hairy leaves, irregularly lobed; flowers, or 

capsules within persistent calyx, often present .... Hyoscyamus, 113. 

TJrticaoeoe : 
Flowers consisting of single sepal inclosing pistil or 

capsule Cannabis, 114. 

Group X 

Alg/e 

Thallus filiform, much branched, horny, translucent. . .Chondrus, 117. 

Thallus with large air-vesicles Fucus, 119. 

Thallus round or oval, tough and horny, long, stem-like . Laminaria, 120. 
Mixture of several small sea-weeds Corsican Moss, 120. 

Group XI 

Lichens 

Irregularly lobed lichens, brownish-gray above and 

grayish-white below Cetraria, 121. 

Flat lichen, brownish, with oval prominences on one 

side and corresponding depressions on the other side. Sticta, 122. 

Group XII 

Fungi 

Fusiform, purplish-black grains Ergota, 123. 

Irregular, brown-black masses, partly membranous, 

partly pulverulent Ustilago, 125. 

White, tough, light masses Agaricus, 126. 

Thin, brown, pliable, velvety sheets Spunk, 126. 

Semi-fluid, viscid, frothy substance Yeast, 126. 

White or yellowish grains Kefir-seed, 127. 

Round dark-brown masses, pulverulent within Puff-balls, 127. 

Group XIII 

Lycopodiace.e 
Light-yellow, very mobile powder Lycopodium, 128. 

Group XIV 

EQUISETACE.E 

Jointed, hollow, slender stems, about 60 cm. long ; or 

broken Equisetum, 129. 



580 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Group XV 

Ferns 

Large rhizome beset with the bases of stipes Aspidium, 130. 

Frond of fern with triangular leaflets and thin, glossy 

brown stipes - Adiantum, 131. 

Hard, dark-brown rhizome, beset with short remnants 

of stipes Polypodium, 132. 

Fine, silky, glossy, bronze-colored hairs Penghawar, 133. 

Group XVI 

Endogenous Roots 

Very long, about 4 to 5 mm. thick; brownish Sarsaparilla, 162. 

Thin and slender, about 15 to 20 cm. long, and about 

1 mm. thick Vetiveria, 168. 

Group XVII 

Woody Exogenous Roots With Thin Bark 

Brown or purplish brown ; wood tough Krameria, 169. 

Blackish-brown and warty; wood in irregular circles or 

rings Pareira, 170. 

Wood firm and yellow; taste very sweet Glycyrrhiza, 172. 

Yellowish-brown; tough yellowish wood Gelsemium, 173. 

Large, grayish-brown; often with rootlets braided; or 

chopped in pieces Methysticum, 175. 

Thin pale brown bark, often scaling off and showing 

white wood Hydrangea, 176. 

Group XVIII 

Woody Exogenous Roots With Thick Bark ; With Ducts 

Long roots, gray bark about one-fourth of diameter of 

the dry root Apocynum 

Cannabinum, 177. 
Similar to above, but thinner, brown, and bark about 

one-sixth of entire thickness Apocynum Andro- 

saemifolium, 178. 
Short brownish-gray sections, wood spongy and bark 

easily separable and flaring at cut ends Stillingia, 180. 

Group XIX 

Woody Exogenous Roots With Thick Bark; No Ducts 

Purplish-brown, wood tough, bark thick Krameria, 181. 

Small roots, blackish-brown, with thick annulated bark . Ipecacuanha, 181. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 581 

Group XX 

Fleshy Roots With Ducts 

Hard, tuberous, irregularly round or pear-shaped, dark- 
brown Jalapa, 184. 

With eaudex, branched, section marked with concentric 

lines Taraxacum, 186. 

With eaudex, branched, section marked with radiating 

lines Cichorium, 187. 

Hard, yellowish-brown or gray, bark closely tubercu- 

lated Asclepias, 187. 

Tough, porous sections, with irregular bundles Sumbul, 189. 

Light grayish-brown, branched root, deeply wrinkled .. Angelica, 189. 

Fusiform, yellowish, annulate, often bifid Panax, 190. 

Fusiform, dark grayish-brown, annulate above, deeply 

wrinkled Pyrethrum, 191. 

Thick, round root with long branches, or sometimes in 

transverse or longitudinal sections Inula, 192. 

Long, spongy or flexible, light-colored, usually split 

lengthwise Levisticum, 193. 

Dark-brown, knotty, flattened, with root-scars and trans- 
verse rings Imperatoria, 191. 

Long, slender, yellowish-white, flexible, usually split 

lengthwise Petroselinum, 195. 

Long, yellowish-brown, annulate above, wrinkled and 

warty below Pimpinella, 196. 

Group XXI 

Fleshy Roots Without Ducts 

Conical, blackish-brown, tuberous roots, single or 

joined in pairs Aconitum, 197. 

Slender, light grayish-brown roots, little branched Belladonnae 

Radix, 200. 

Large, round or plano-convex, orange-yellow pieces of 

roots, peeled Rheum, 201. 

Several-headed eaudex, root branched and keeled, yel- 
lowish-gray, wood not cylindrical Senega, 202. 

Whole, or longitudinally split, dark-brown roots, trans- 
versely annulate above Gentiana, 203. 

Transverse sections, greenish-gray bark, yellowish on cut 

surface Calumba, 204. 

Grayish-white transverse sections, hard, with prominent 

radiating and concentric lines Bryonia, 205. 



582 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

White roots,, with cork removed, white, mealy and 

fibrous Althaea, 206. 

Longitudinal and transverse sections, with projecting 
white wood-bundles alternating with yellowish-gray 

parenchyma Phytolacca 

Radix, 207. 

Long, simple, fusiform root, usually partially broken 

and doubled up lengthwise Rumex, 208. 

Brown-black, horny, somewhat contorted roots, often 

split lengthwise Symphytum, 209. 

Long, thin roots, externally rust-brown, internally whit- 
ish Saponaria, 209. 

Cylindrical, simple, fleshy root, grayish-brown and 

wrinkled Lappa, 210. 

Crowned with leaf -bases and covered with a dark pur- 
plish foliaceous bark easily separable from the yel- 
lowish wood Alkairna, 211. 

Longitudinal or transverse slices, pale orange-brown ... Frasera, 212. 

Group XXII 

Endogenous Rhizomes With Rootlets 

Long, grayish or brownish, deeply wrinkled roots, often 

over 1 meter long, folded back over a compact 

rhizome SarsapariUa, 215. 

Obconical, blackish-gray, with shriveled lighter-colored 

rootlets Veratrum Viride, 215. 

Thin, branched, straw-colored or pale yellowish, with 

hair-like rootlets at nodes Convallaria, 216. 

Jointed, deeply-wrinkled, flattish, grayish-brown, annu- 

lated with darker-colored markings Iris Versicolor, 217. 

Obconical to 1 subglobular, annulate, orange-brown Trillium, 217. 

Obconical, grayish-brown, with rootlets on upper part ; 

whitish within Dracontium, 218. 

Bent, orange-brown, with many stem-scars above and 

wavy rootlets below Cypripedium, 219. 

Whole, or longitudinal slices, yellowish-brown, whitish 

within ; annulate Polygonatum, 220. 

Much branched and curved; pale-brown, very hard and 

tough Dioscorea, 221. 

Subcylindrical, curved, grayish-brown, with tough, wiry 

rootlets Helonias, 222. 

Cylindrical, covered with tufts of leaf-bases and nu- 
merous pale-colored and soft rootlets Aletris, 222. 

Flattish-cylindrical, reddish-brown, with root-scars in 

wavy lines on under side Calamus, 223. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 583 

Group XXIII 

Exogenous Rhizomes With Rootlets; With Ducts 

Small, hard, dark-brown, curved rhizome ; rootlets all on 

lower side ; a ring of ducts in the section Arnica, 224. 

Short, thick, upright rhizome, with many rootlets ; with 

characteristic odor Valeriana, 224. 

Thin, small rhizome, with remains of stems on upper 

side, and many rootlets on lower side Serpentaria, 226. 

Group XXIV 

Exogenous Rhizomes With Rootlets; No Ducts 

Short, thick, upright rhizome with many rootlets; with 

characteristic odor Valeriana, 228. 

Thin, small rhizome with remains of stems on upper 

side, and many rootlets on lower side Serpentaria, 228. 

Small, thin, knotty rhizomes, with many brittle root- 
lets, gamboge-colored within Hydrastis, 228. 

Irregular, knotty, brownish-black rhizomes, with many 

rootlets which have from 3 to 6 radiating bundles. . Cimicifuga, 229. 

Small, knotty rhizome, with several stem-scars and nu- 
merous long rootlets; grayish-brown Spigelia, 230. 

Hard, irregular, bent and knotty rhizome, with broad 

stem-scars and numerous rootlets; yellowish-brown . Caulophyllum, 230. 

Rhizome a meter or more long, with small rootlets ; 

brown or yellowish-brown Menispermum, 231. 

Knotty, many-headed caudex with many rootlets; gray- 
ish or yellowish-brown externally and with white 

wood Asclepias 

Incarnata, 232. 

Blackish-brown, branched and flattened rhizome, with 

many and long nearly black rootlets Leptandra, 233. 

Thin, long, more or less contorted rhizomes; purplish- 
brown externally and whitish within Asarum, 234. 

Much contorted, tough, knotty rhizomes, with several 
stems and more or less contorted roots ; light-brown 
externally and white within Gillenia, 235. 

Knotty, scaly and wrinkled rhizome, with rootlets on 
under side; brownish externally and whitish with- 
in Geum, 236. 

Very hard, knotty and irregularly branched rhizomes, 

with thin and brittle rootlets; grayish-brown Collinsonia, 237. 



584 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Group XXV 

Cryptogamous Rhizomes Without Rootlets 

Large rhizome, beset with the bases of stipes Aspidium, 237. 

Hard, dark-brown rhizome, beset with short remnants 

of stipes Polypodium, 237. 

Group XXVI 

Endogenous Rhizomes Without Rootlets ; Elongate 

Jointed, deeply-wrinkled, flattish, grayish-brown, annu- 
late with darker-colored markings Iris Versicolor, 238. 

Flattish-cylindrical, reddish-brown, with root-scars in 

wavy lines on the under side Calamus, 238. 

Very long, thin, straw-colored, hollow; usually cut into 

pieces about 1 cm. long Triticum, 240. 

Group XXVII 

Endogenous Rhizomes Without Rootlets; Short 

Flattish, lobed, peeled or unpeeled, brownish, gray or 

white rhizomes Zingiber, 241. 

Cylindrical, branched, reddish-brown rhizomes, annulate 

with lighter-colored wavy leaf -sheaths Galanga, 243. 

Cylindrical or oval yellowish-gray rhizomes, deep orange- 
yellow within Curcuma, 244. 

Flat, somewhat ham-shaped, grayish or white rhizomes, 

often with similarly shaped smaller lobes attached . Iris Plorentina, 245. 

Very hard, irregular, massive tuberous rhizomes, red- 
dish-brown, with funnel-shaped stem-scars Chinse Rhizoma, 24G. 

Light-reddish or brownish-gray circular disks, or in 

longitudinal halves or quarters Zedoaria, 247. 

Subcylindrical, curved, grayish-brown rhizome with- 
out rootlets Helonias, 248. 

Group XXVIII 

Exogenous Rhizomes Without Rootlets; Elongate 

Ehizome with thickened nodes, with stem-scars above 

and root-scars below, glossy brown Podophyllum, 248. 

Cylindrical, annulate, light, pithy, grayish-brown, bark 

exfoliating Aralia 

i Nudicaulis, 249. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 585 

Group XXIX 

Exogenous Rhizomes Without Rootlets; Short 

Flattened, bent upon itself, or broken, dark-brown, hard . Bistorta, 250. 

More or less curved and somewhat flattened pieces, with 

closely set, large cup-shaped stem-scars; brownish . Scopola, 251. 

Dark reddish-brown rhizome, somewhat flattened, much 

wrinkled and twisted Sanguinaria, 252. 

Hard, compact, contorted and tuberculated, umber- 
brown Geranium, 252. 

Simple, cylindrical or flattened, externally rough and 

grayish-brown Tormentilla, 253. 

Dark-brown, knotty, flattened, with root-scars and 

transverse rings Imperatoria, 254. 

Group XXX 

Whole Tubers and Corms 

Hard, tuberous, irregularly round or pear-shaped, dark- 
brown Jalapa, 255. 

Conical, blackish-brown, tuberous roots, single or 

joined in pairs Aconitum, 255. 

Ovoid, brownish, wrinkled corms, with a groove on 

one side Colchicum, 255. 

Single, round, small, hard, semi-translucent or opaque, 
yellow or brown tubers; sometimes two concavo- 
convex tubers joined, with a third smaller tuber be- 
tween them Corydalis, 256. 

Oval, slightly flattened or shrunken, semi-translucent 

and very hard Salep, 256. 

Group XXXI 

Sliced Tubers 

Kidney-shaped grayish-white slices Colchicum, 257. 

Transverse slices with dark-gray epidermis and mealy- 
white surfaces Arum, 259. 

Group XXXII 

Whole Bulbs 

Large, juicy, greenish or pinkish-white bulbs, the ex- 
ternal . scales, when present, pinkish-brown Scilla, 260. 

White bulbs, with stem, coated with a few dry, mem- 
branous, white scales enclosing about eight bulblets . Allium, 261. 



586 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Group XXXIII 

Sliced Bulbs 

Narrow slices, up to 5 cm. long, often contorted; whit- 
ish with yellowish or pinkish tint; slightly diaph- 
anous Scilla, 262. 

Group XXXIV 

Leafy Twigs 

Twigs with obovate or oval, coriaceous, slightly serrate 

leaves Gaultheria, 263. 

Twigs mixed with coriaceous, oblanceolate or cuneate- 
lanceolate leaves, with margin serrate at apex and 
entire near the base Chimaphila, 265. 

Twigs and leaves agglutinated into broken masses with 

exuded gum-resin; leaves lanceolate, dentate Eriodyction, 266. 

Brownish-green twigs with oval, thick coriaceous, and 
deeply wrinkled leaves ; leaves usually detached from 
twigs Phoradendron, 267. 

Twigs with scythe-shaped long, light-grayish-green leaves . Eucalyptus, 354. 

Group XXXV 

Scaly Twigs 

Scales with a longitudinal ridge and projecting gland. .Thuja, 268. 
Scales with a longitudinal groove Sabina, 269. 

Group XXXVI 

Naked or Leafless Twigs 

Short, pale, grayish-green pieces of twigs, with smooth- 
cut ends ; usually hollow Dulcamara, 270. 

Pale-green, five or six-angled stems, with clusters of 

spines on the edges Cereus, 271. 

Group XXXVII 

Piths 

Slender, cylindrical, sometimes curved pieces, spongy 

white Sassafras 

Medulla, 273. 
Similar to above, but thicker and yellowish in color .... Sambuci 

Medulla, 273. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 587 

Group XXXVIII 

White Woods 

Coarse, light, white shavings, or raspings Quassia, 276. 

Group XXXIX 

Colored Woods 

Greenish-brown raspings, mixed with some white parti- 
cles Guaiaci Lignum, 278. 

Yellowish or reddish-gray raspings Juniperi 

Lignum, 279. 
Deep purplish-red or brownish-red shavings, or coarse 

powder Santalum 

Rubrum, 280. 
Red or reddish-brown raspings, the cut surfaces having 

resinous appearance rernambuco, 280. 

Purplish-black or brownish-red shavings or raspings, of- 
ten with a greenish-metallic luster Haematoxylon, 281. 

Brown or yellowish-brown chips or raspings Lignum 

Citrinum, 282. 

Group XL 

Cinchona Barks; Bark With Isolated Bast-Cells 

Quills or troughs with brownish-gray cork ; brownish- 
yellow internally Cinchona Flava, 303. 

Thick, flat pieces, usually without cork, splintery, fibrous, 

orange-yellow Cinchona Flava, 304. 

Two kinds, flat and quilled; similar to above kinds, ex- 
cept that color is deep reddish-brown Cinchona Rubra, 305. 

Quills, smaller than other varieties, grayish-brown ex- 
ternally and internally Cinchona 

Pallida, 306. 

Group XLI 

Barks With Bast Eadially Striate 

Troughs or simple quills, without cork, both surfaces 

cinnamon-brown ; pungently aromatic Cinnamom. Cass., 308. 

Thin, papery, compound quills, without cork, externally 
and - internally pale cinnamon-colored ; pungently 

aromatic Cinnamom. 

Zeyl., 309. 



588 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Large troughs or quills, externally with grayish-brown 
cork, internally cinnamon-brown; pungently aro- 
matic Cinnamom. 

Saigon., 310. 

Quills or irregular pieces, dull brownish, with peculiar 
transverse cracks and with white lichens with black 
spots on outer surface; taste bitter aromatic Cascarilla, 311. 

Irregularly curved pieces, cork removed, both surfaces 
reddish-brown with a shade of carmine; longitudi- 
nally striate, fracture short and pale-pink or whit- 
ish; bitter astringent Cornus, 312. 

Quills or broken pieces, externally whitish or pale-red- 
dish with white scars, internally whitish; odor cin- 
namon-like and taste pungently bitterish Canella, 313. 

Irregular pieces, outer surface often marbled, fragile, 

soft, rust-brown, with characteristic taste and odor. Sassafras, 314. 

Quills or flat pieces, externally purplish-brown, showing 
small transverse scars, or rough; internally longi- 
tudinally fissured; developing bitter almond taste 
on chewing . Prunus Virg., 315. 

Long, coarsely fibrous, pale yellowish-brown pieces, often 

partially broken and folded upon themselves; bitter. Simaruba, 317. 

Quills or troughs, externally dark brownish-gray with 
corky warts, internally orange-brown with narrow, 
short, longitudinal ridges; bitter astringent Alnus Rubra, 317. 

Shallow troughs and irregular fragments, cork removed, 
toughly fibrous internally; both surfaces yellowish- 
brown Magnolia, 318. 

Troughs or quills, purplish-brown externally, internally 
yellowish-white, fibrous in inner layer; bitter 
astringent Liriodendron, 319. 

Thin, tough, flexible bands, flatfish or quilled, outer 
surface blackish, inner pale-brown; mixed with 
small roots Rubus, 320. 

Thin fragments, outer surface brownish, inner surface 

yellow ; bitter ; stains saliva yellow Rerberis, 321. 

Irregular pieces, outer surface pale yellowish-brown 
with lighter spots, inner surface smooth and brown- 
ish-yellow; fracture abrupt, almost waxy Ptelea, 322. 

Quills or troughs, brownish-gray with whitish patches, 
marked with minute black dots and scattered small 

spines ; striation obscure Xanthoxylum, 

N., 345. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 589 

Group XLII 

Barks With Bast Tangentially Striated 

Nearly flat massive bark, with thick corky layer deeply 
fissured; gray or grayish-brown on outer and red- 
dish on inner surfaces Aspidosperma, 324. 

Thin flexible bands or quilled pieces; brownish on outer 
and whitish on inner surfaces; separable into thin 

layers G-ossypii Had. 

Cort., 326. 

Long, thin, flexible bands, rolled into bundles, yellowish 

on outer and silky-white on inner surfaces Mezereum, 327. 

Quilled pieces or troughs; ash-gray outer and whitish 

or pale tawny inner surfaces Euonymus, 328. 

Flattish pieces or troughs ; ash-gray outer and pale- 
brown or whitish inner surfaces Viburnum 

Opulus, 329. 

Thin quills or troughs, gray-brown outer and pale-brown 

and striated inner surfaces Ouidurango, 330. 

Small contorted quills or troughs, usually irregularly 
broken ; occasionally whole pieces of root ; their 
brownish corky layer usually partially detached and 

adherent in shreds Rhois Glabrae 

Cort., 331. 

Large troughs or flat pieces, smooth, dark-brown and 

mottled on outer surface; bork generally absent .. Juglans (stem), 332. 

Coarse quills, troughs or irregular pieces, toughly fibrous ; 
outer surface gray or blackish-brown with many 
transverse ridges, inner surface smooth or fibrous .. Piscidia, 333. 

Thick quills or troughs with coarsely fissured grayish- 
brown corky layer, or without bork; yellowish- 
brown and striated inner surface Alstonia 

Constr., 334. 

Group XLIII 

Barks With Quadratically Striated Bast 

Thin, tough quills, glossy greenish or yellowish-brown 

outer surface; bitter astringent Salix, 336. 

Flat, pale brownish-white pieces with corky layer re- 
moved; mucilaginous taste Ulmus, 337. 

Large, flat pieces or troughs, reddish-brown externally; 

fibrous fracture; acrid taste Quillaja, 337. 

Quills or troughs, cork warty, ash-gray, or wanting; 

fracture splintery, coarsely fibrous Fraxinus, 338. 

Large troughs or flat pieces, smooth, dark-brown and 

mottled on outer surface; bork generally absent. . Juglans, 332. 



590 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Brittle pieces or small quills, externally yellowish-gray, 
inner surface somewhat darker; often with con- 
choidal depressions externally Granatum, 347. 

Group XLIV 

Barks With no Striation in Bast 

Heavy, long, nattish pieces or troughs, the bark up to 

15 mm. thick, reddish-brown Coto, 340. 

Similar to above, rust-brown, outer surface fissured 

and shrunken Paracoto, 340. 

Narrow, brittle fragments, shaved from twigs, about 
1 mm. thick, whitish wood adhering to inner sur- 
face Prinos, 341. 

Irregular pieces or troughs, outer surface grayish-brown 
with transverse warts, or reddish-brown patches 

where grayish-brown cork is detached Hamamelidis 

Cortex, 342. 

Troughs or quills, up to 30 cm. long, younger bark 

mottled, older with rough cork Cascara, 343. 

Thin bark in rolled quills, externally grayish-brown 
to blackish-brown with small transverse whitish 
cork-warts; inner surface brownish yellow Frangula, 344. 

Thin quills or troughs, glossy purplish-brown with 

scattered warts and blackish dots Viburnum prun., 345. 

Quills or troughs, brownish-gray with whitish patches, 
marked with minute black dots and scattered small 
spines; obscure radial striation Xanthoxyl., N., 345. 

Quills or nattish pieces, brownish-gray with many large 

conical projections Xanthoxyl., S., 346. 

Irregular pieces or troughs, externally brown and rough 

from warts; inner surface pale brownish-yellow. . Chionanthus, 347. 

Brittle pieces or small quills, externally yellowish-gray, 
inner surface somewhat darker; often with con- 
choidal depressions externally Granatum, 348. 

Irregular pieces, outer surface marbled or grained, 
fragile, soft, rust-brown; characteristic odor, and 
taste Sassafras, 314. 

Irregular pieces, outer surface pale yellowish-brown 
with lighter spots, inner surface smooth and 
brownish-yellow; fracture abrupt, almost waxy. .Ptelea, 322. 

Group XLV 

Rasped Barks 

An irregular coarse, grayish-brown powder mixed with 

many tough coarse fibers Quercus Alba, 349. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 591 

Group XLVI 

Leaf Buds 

Long, tapering, scaly leaf buds, brown and covered 

externally with, sticky resinous exudation Populi Gemmae, 350. 

Group XLVII 

Simple Coriaceous Leaves 

Scythe-shaped, 15 to 30 cm. long, margin entire; gray- 
ish-green Eucalyptus, 354. 

Eoundish-obovate, about 15 mm. long, margin crenate 
or serrate; yellowish-green; pellucid-punctate, with 
a gland at each serration Buchu (short), 355. 

Slender, linear-lanceolate leaves, about 3 to 4 cm. long, 

margin serrate; otherwise like the preceding. .. .Buchu (long), 356. 

Obovate or oblong-spatulate, 15 to 20 mm. long, mar- 
gin entire; lower surface reticulate; brownish- 
green Uva Ursi, 356. 

Variable in size and shape, ovate, obovate-oblong to 
lanceolate, 2 to 7 cm. long, margin entire; green 
to brownish; with a curved line on each side of 
the midrib Coca, 357. 

Obovate to oblong, 10 to 25 mm. long, margin with 2 

to 6 dentations on each side; light-green Damiana, 358. 

Ovate-oblong, to 5 cm. long, with long petiole, margin 

finely crenulate; whitish to grayish-green, downy. .Salvia, 359. 

Rolled into small balls or cylinders, grayish-green, 

bluish-green to blackish Thea, 359. 

Oblong or oblong-lanceolate, acute at both ends, 5 to 
10 cm. long, margin entire, somewhat wavy; pel- 
lucid-punctate; brownish or brownish-green Laurus, 361. 

Broadly oval, about 5 cm. long, margin entire; rough 
on both sides, glossy on upper and hairy on under 
surfaces; brownish-green Boldus, 361. 

Linear, about 25 mm. long, margin revolute, dark-green 
above, whitish woolly, glandular, with prominent 
midrib underneath Rosmarinus, 362. 

Lanceolate, short-petiolate, 7 to 10 cm. long, to 25 
mm. broad, margin entire and somewhat wavy; 
thin, smooth, and often with scars from insects. . . Duboisia, 362. 

Ovate, petiolate, about 5 cm. long, margin entire; thick, 

glaucous, pale green Manzanita, 363. 

Roundish-oval or obovate, about 4 cm. long, 2 or more 
cm. broad, margin slightly serrate with appressed 
spicular teeth; smooth, glossy, green or brownish- 
green Gaultheria, 263. 



592 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Oblanceolate, about 5 cm. long, margin serrate at apex 

and nearly entire near base; smooth, dark green. . Chimaphila, 265. 

Oblong-lanceolate, 5 to 10 cm. long, margin irregularly 
dentate; greenish or brown; upper surface smooth 
and covered with brownish resin, lower surface 
white-hairy Eriodyction, 266. 

Group XLVIII 

Compound Coriaceous Leaves 

Whole leaf with 8 to 10 leaflets; leaflets various sizes, 
2 to 4 cm. long, lanceolate, uneven at base, entire, 
grayish-green Senna, 364. 

Whole leaf with 5 to 11 leaflets; leaflets about 10 to 15 
em. long, oval or ovate-oblong, emarginate, uneven 
at base, margin entire, pellucid-punctate, dull gray- 
ish-green Pilocarpus, 366. 



Group XLIX 

Simple Herbaceous Leaves 

Broadly ovate, thin, smooth, 5 to 15 cm. long, petiolate, 
apex tapering, margin entire; usually as ll tops' ' 

with two unequal leaves at nodes Belladonnse 

Folia, 368. 

Ovate, 10 to 30 cm. long, petiolate, margin crenate, 

reticulate on under surface, densely hairy Digitalis, 369. 

Lanceolate, about 10 to 15 cm. long, apex acute, base 
unequally cordate, margin finely crenulate, under 
surface with prominent venation and deeply retic- 
ulate Matico, 371. 

Obliquely ovate or oval, about 10 cm. long, short petio- 
late, margin irregularly sinuate or wavy-toothed .. Hamamelis, 372. 

Ovate to oblong lanceolate, acuminate, petiolate, 15 
to 25 cm. long, from 5 to 8 cm. broad, evenly 
feather-veined, margin serrate Castanea, 372. 

Ovate, petiolate, about 15 to 25 cm. long, margin ir- 
regularly sinuously lobed or toothed, much wrin- 
kled and broken Stramonii Folia, 373. 

Oblong or oval-lanceolate, 10 to 30 cm. long, petiole 
broadly winged, apex acute, margin crenate, gray- 
felty or hairy Vefbasci Folia, 374. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 593 

Large peltate leaf, about 9-lobed, up to 50 cm. or more 
across, lobes acuminate, margin serrate, much 
wrinkled and broken Ricini Polia, 375. 

Oval or ovate, lanceolate, up to 50 cm. long, apex 

acute, margin entire, brown Tabacum, 375. 

Eolled into small balls or cylinders; grayish-green, 

bluish-green to blackish .Thea, 259. 

Ovate, irregularly lobed leaves, up to 25 cm. long, 
gray-green, hairy; usually as leafy tops; flowers 
or capsules within persistent calyces often present . Hyoscyamus, 113. 

Frond of fern with triangular leaflets, with sporangia 
under recurved edges of lobes, and thin glossy- 
brown stripes Adiantum, 131. 

Group L 

Compound Herbaceous Leaves 

Trifoliate, with long petiole, side-leaflets nearly ses- 
sile, leaflets entire or irregularly lobed Rhus Radicans, 377. 

Outline round or subcordate, petiolate, 5 to 10 cm. in 
diameter, 3 to 5-parted, the lobes deeply incised 
and wedge-shaped Aconiti, Folia, 378. 

Large, broad leaves, with hollow petiole, twice or 

thrice decompound Conii Polia, 379. 

Long petioled, bi or tri-pinnately decompound; lobelets 

entire, spatulate, somewhat fleshy Ruta, 380. 

Group LI 

Racemose or Cymose Inflorescences 

Large panicles in bundles, rolls or compressed clusters; 

reddish-brown Cusso, 382. 

Bundles of one-sided racemes with about eight or nine 

bell-shaped flowers; scape about 15 em. long Convallariae 

Plores, 383. 
Heads of small, reddish, papilionaceous flowers, with 

foliage leaves at base Trif olium, 384. 

Pale yellowish-green bracts with cymes of three to 

nine flowers Tilia, 385. 

Large corymbose cymes of yellowish color Sambucus, 395. 

Group LII 

• , Unopened Compound Flower-Heads 

Elongate, somewhat angular, scaly flower-heads, 2 to 

3 mm. long, grayish-green; unopened Santonica, 386. 



594 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Group LIII 

Expanded Compound Flower-Heads 

Heads about 3 cm. broad, with scaly involucre, flat 
receptacle, about 15 to 20 yellow ray-florets and 
many disk-florets with pappus Arnicae Flores, 388. 

Subglobular heads, about 2 cm. broad, with imbricate 
involucre, conical solid receptacle, numerous white 
ligulate florets and few disk-florets Anthemis, 389. 

Heads about 2 cm. broad, with imbricate involucre, con- 
ical hollow receptacle, 12 to 18 white ray-florets 
and many deep-yellow disk-florets Matricaria, 390. 

Heads depressed roundish, about 2.5 cm. broad, with 
imbricate involucre, convex receptacle, about 20 
to 30 pinkish ray-florets and numerous yellow disk- 
florets Pyrethri Flores, 391. 

Heads subglobular, about 4 to 8 mm. broad, with im- 
bricate involucre, convex receptacle, and numer- 
ous yellow tubular florets Tanacetum, 97. 

Group LIV 

Unopened Single Flowers 

Subcylindrical calyx tube with four teeth, terminated 
by a corolla forming a globular head; about 15 
mm. long; brown Caryophyllus, 392. 

Ovoid buds, about 12 to 15 mm. long, with 5-toothed 

calyx; pale brownish-yellow Aurantii Flores, 393. 

Group LV 

Opened Single Flowers 

Simple Flowers: 

Small shriveled, pale brownish-yellow, roundish grains . Sambucus, 395. 

Small two-lipped flowers with bluish-gray calyx and 

violet-blue corolla Lavandula, 396. 

Light grayish-green, double calyx, felty with stellate 

hairs; petals purplish-black Althaeas Flores, 396. 

Similar to last, somewhat smaller, and the corolla blu- 
ish-purple in dry drug Malvae Flores, 397. 

Calyx grayish-green, felty, 5 parted; corolla 5-lobed, 

wheel-shaped, yellow Verbasci Flores, 403. 

Florets from Compound Flowers : 

Yellow, strap-shaped, fertile (female) ray-florets Calendula, 398. 

Deep-red, thin tubular, 5-lobed corolla, with projecting 

anther tube and style Carthamus, 399. 

Neuter (sexless) florets, with tubular corolla ending 

in 7-parted blue limb Cyani Flores, 400. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 595 

Group LVI 

Corollas 

Roundish-obovate or obcordate petals of pinkish color 

and fragrant odor Rosa Centifolia, 401. 

Deep purplish-red cones, about 2.5 cm. long, consisting 

of imbricated roundish petals Rosa Gallica, 402. 

Five-lobed, wheel-shaped, hairy, yellow corolla, with 

five coherent anthers enclosed Verbasci Flores, 402. 

Nearly round, thin, dark-red petal, about 5 cm. broad, 

with a blue-black spot at the base Rhoeadis Flores, 403. 

Five obovate-cuneate, deep-red to purplish-black petals, 

each about 2.5 to 4 cm. long, united at the base. . Althaeae Flores, 396. 

Similar to last, but smaller and bluish-purple Malvae Flores, 397. 

Deep-red, thin tubular, 5-lobed corolla, with projecting 

anther tube and style Carthamus, 399. 

Neuter (sexless) florets, with tubular corolla ending in 

7-parted blue limb Cyani Flores, 400. 

Group LVII 

Stigmas 

Separate stigmas, or three attached to a style, linear- 
tubular, about 3 cm. long, deep orange-brown with 
reddish tinge *. Crocus, 405. 

Tufts of soft, silky, thread-like, yellowish hairs, about 
15 cm. long; the ends of the tufts often dried or 
shriveled together and dark-brown Zea, 407. 

Group LVIII 

Fresh Spurious Fruits 

Pitcher-shaped or ovate berry-like fruit, about 2 cm. 

long, bright glossy red, bristly hairy within Rosa Canina, 409. 

Globular or subglobular pome; green, russet, yellow, 

red or varicolored; acidulous sweet Malum, 410. 

Group LIX 

Fresh Fleshy Fruits 

Oval, bright yellow fruits, with very acid juice Limon, 412. 

Globular or subglobular, orange-colored fruits, with 

acidulous sweet juice Aurantii Fructus, 413. 

Globular green berry, about 2.5 cm. in diameter, with 

4-lobed persistent calyx and about five seeds Diospyros, 414. 



596 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Globular or subglobular pome; green, russet, yellow, 

red or varicolored; acidulous sweet Malum, 410. 

A collective or multiple fruit, composed of numerous 

small drupes; red or black Rubus Idaeus, 415. 

Small round fruit resembling a berry, about 5 mm. in 

diameter, brownish-black with, bluish bloom Juniperus, 417. 

Group LX 

Fresh Stone Fruits 

Numerous red or black stone-fruits united into a small, 
round-conical cluster with hollow base; sweet, 
acidulous Rubus Idaeus, 415. 

Group LXI 

Dried or Prepared Spurious Fruits 

Strobile with flexible scales; yellowish-green Humulus, 416. 

Small, round fruit resembling a berry, about 5 mm. in 

diameter, brownish-black with bluish bloom Juniperus, 417. 

Compressed, of irregular shape, fleshy, yellowish- 
brown ; very sweet Ficus, 418. 

Cylindrical, about 4 to 5 cm. long, 5 mm. thick, spirally 

nodulated, stalked, grayish-brown Piper Longum, 420. 

Dull greenish or greenish-brown fruit, about 1 mm. in 
diameter, depressed globular, obscurely lobed, con- 
taining a glossy black seed; peculiar odor and 
pungent taste Chenopodium, 421. 

Group LXII 

Dry Fruits 

Capsules or Pods: 

Small, obtusely triangular, 3-celled capsules, 10 to 15 
mm. long; central placenta with many brown 
seeds; pale buff Cardamomum, 426. 

Eight reddish-brown woody follicles, arranged star- 
shaped; often some of the carpels are aborted; 
odor anise-like Illicium, 427. 

Large, round or elongated, pale brownish-yellow cap- 
sules, 1-celled, with many parietal placentas and 
containing many white or bluish seeds Papaver, 429. 

Fleshy, linear, dark brown pod, up to 25 cm. long by 

8 mm. thick; very fragrant Vanilla, 430. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 597 

Hard, rigid, cylindrical, dark brown pod, up to 60 cm. 

long by 2.5 cm. thick Cassia Fistula, 432. 

Flat, broad, glossy brownish pod, about 10 to 20 cm. 

long, with up to 12 seeds; with sweetish pulp. . . . Ceratonia, 432. 

From 2 to 5 small, somewhat thick and fleshy pods at- 
tached to a short stalk; each about 5 mm. long and 

containing 1 or 2 glossy black seeds Xanthoxyli 

Fructus, 433. 
Akenes : 

Obovate-oblong, brownish-gray, somewhat curved 

akene, about 6 mm. long Lappa? Fructus, 434. 

Subglobular, brownish or greenish-gray akene, about 4 

mm. in diameter, with a single oily seed Cannabis 

Fructus, 435. 

Elliptic grain, about 7 to 9 mm. long, enclosed in 

straw-colored palese; taste farinaceous Hordei Fructus, 435. 

Like preceding in appearance, but with sweet taste. . .Maltum, 436. 

Elliptic, flattened, glossy pale yellowish grain, about 

4 mm. long Phalaridis 

Fructus, 436. 

Very small subglobular utricle, about 2 mm. in diam- 
eter; dull greenish-brownish color; contains shin- 
ing black seed Chenopodium, 421. 

Cremocarps; usually remaining united: with oil tubes: 

Oval; each fruit with 5 obscure ridges and about 16 

oil-tubes; grayish, finely hairy Anisum, 437. 

Globular, hollow, some of the ridges wavy; each fruit 
with 2 oil-tubes on inner face; brownish-yel- 
low, smooth Coriandrum, 437. 

Elongated, compressed from sides; each fruit with 5 
ridges and 6 oil-tubes; yellowish-brown; rough 
hairy Cumini Fructus, 438. 

Elongated, nearly cylindrical, with 5-toothed calyx, 
ridges not prominent; each fruit with 6 oil-tubes; 

brownish-green ., Phellandrii 

Fructus, 438. 
Often remaining united; without oil tubes: 

Oval, compressed from sides; each fruit with 5 nodu- 
lated ridges and 2 deep lateral grooves; no oil- 
tubes; albumen crescent-shaped in transverse sec- 
tion; brownish-green Conium, 439. 

Usually separating; with oil-tubes: 

Elongated; compressed from sides; each fruit with 5 
obscure ridges and 6 oil-tubes; usually curved; 
brown Carum, 440. 



598 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Elongated, nearly cylindrical; each fruit with 5 angular 

ridges and 6 oil-tubes; smooth; yellowish-brown. . Foeniculum, 440. 

Koundish-ovate, compressed from sides; each fruit with 

5 obscure ridges and 6 oil-tubes; grayish-green. . . . Petroselini 

Oval, compressed from back; each fruit with 3 sharp- 
keeled dorsal ridges and 2 long lateral ridges form- 
ing thin broad margins; 6 oil-tubes; brown Anethi Fructus, 441. 

Very small, roundish-ovate, compressed from sides, 
smooth; each fruit with 5 angular ridges and 12 
to 15 oil-tubes; brown Apii Fructus, 442. 

Elliptic, compressed from back; each fruit with 5 

prominent ridges, the lateral ones larger, and 6 

oil-tubes; yellowish -brown Levistici 

Fructus, 442. 
Elliptic, compressed from back; each fruit with 3 

prominent dorsal ridges and 2 long, flat, lateral 

ridges; numerous oil-tubes; yellow Angelicae 

Fructus, 443. 
Oval, compressed from back; each fruit with 7 ridges, 

2 lateral and 2 dorsal spinous, and 3 dorsal short- 
hairy; 6 oil-tubes; grayish-brown Dauci Fructus, 444. 

Group LXIII 

Fleshy Fruits, or Berries, Dried or Prepared 

Small, wrinkled, black berries, 3 to 4 mm. in diameter; 

pungently spicy Piper Nigrum, 446. 

Oblong-conical, glossy red berry, about 2 cm. long; 

taste very hot Capsicum, 447. 

Very light, spongy, white or yellowish-white, globular 

fruits, 5 to 10 cm. in diameter; very bitter Colocynthis, 448. 

Soft, shriveled, flattened berries, brownish, translucent; 

very sweet Uvae Passae, 449. 

Eoughly granular, hard, grayish-brown berries with cir- 
cular scar at base Aurant. Fr. 

Immat., 450. 
Small compound berries with ten carpels, almost black; 

sticking together in lumps Phytolacca, Fr., 451. 

Oval-oblong fruits, with 4 cleft calyx; odor clove-like. Anthophylli, 451. 
Small round fruit resembling a berry, about 5 mm. in 

diameter, brownish-black with bluish bloom Juniperus, 417. 

Group LXIV 

Drupes, Dried or Prepared 

Globular, wrinkled, stalked, brownish-black drupe, 3 

to 5 mm. diameter; odor and taste spicy Cubeba, 452. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 599 

Oval, oblong or globular, bluish to blackish drupe, 3 to 

4 cm. long; fruit-like odor and sweet taste Prunum, 453. 

Oval, occasionally compressed, somewhat angular, 

brownish black to bluish-black drupe, 1.5 to 3 cm. 

long and 1 to 1.5 cm. in diameter Sabal, 453. 

Eoundish, wrinkled, blackish-brown drupe, about 6 mm. 

in diameter; odorless Cocculus, 454. 

Obscurely lobed or roundish, wrinkled, black fruit with 

four brown seeds, 5 mm. diameter; disagreeable 

odor, bitter taste Rhamni Cath. 

Fruct., 455. 
Globular drupe, 5 mm. in diameter, with 4-toothed 

calyx, reddish-brown; spicy Pimenta, 455. 

Oval or subglobular drupe, 3 mm. in diameter, densely 

hairy, crimson; taste acidulous Rhus Glabra, 456. 

Kidney-shaped drupe with grayish-brown rind and 

black acrid juicy pulp Anacardium, 457. 

Similar to last, but heart-shaped and darker-brown. . . Semecarpus, 458. 

Group LXV 

Parts of Fruits 

Brownish-black pulp mixed with tough fibers and 

glossy brown seeds; acidulous vinous odor Tamarindus, 459. 

Globular, about 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, grayish -white; 

peppery taste Piper Album, 460. 

Eind of fruit, in quarters, dirty brownish-green on 

outer and dirty white on inner surfaces; fragrant . Aurantii Amari 

Cortex, 461. 

Eind of fruit in spiral bands, dirty brownish-green on 
outer surface, with little whitish parenchyma on 

inner surface; fragrant Aurantii Amari 

Cortex, 461. 

Eind of fruit, in quarters, orange-colored on outer, 

white on inner surfaces; fragrant Aurantii Dulcis 

Cortex, 462. 

Irregular leathery fragments of reddish-brown rind, 
some pieces with hard, long, tubular calyx, and 
most pieces with oval depressions on inner surface; 

no odor Granati Fructus 

Cortex, 463. 

Fragments of fruit, hard brownish-gray rind, to the 
inner side of which dried pulp with seeds ad- 
heres; no odor Belae Fructus, 464. 

Hard, thick, deep-brown rind, without adhering pulp, 
with remains of six-rayed stigma and of hard 
calyx; no odor Mango stana, 465. 



600 HANDEOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Kind of fruit in spiral bands, lemon-yellow on outer, 

white on inner surfaces; fragrant Limonis Cortex, 466. 

Oval grains, about 3 to 4 mm. long, yellowish-white, 
whiter at ends, yellowish-brown groove along one 

side Hordeum 

Perlatum, 466. 

Group LXVI 

Whole Seeds 

Large Seeds; with well-marked albumen: 

Oval, about 2.5 cm. long, netted-veined, with white 

markings from lime-dust, marbled within Myristica, 472. 

Eound, flat, disc-like seeds, about 2.5 cm. in diameter 

and 4 mm. thick; gray and very hard Nux Vomica, 473. 

Irregularly ovate and angular, about 3 cm. long, brown- 
ish-black and very hard Ignatia, 474. 

Short rounded cone with flattened base; about 2.5 cm. 
long; brownish with network of reddish veins; 
heavy, hard Areca, 475. 

Little or no albumen; two cotyledons: 

Ovate, flattened, pointed above, obtuse below; 2 to 2.5 
cm. long; externally brown, white within; agree- 
able nut-like taste Amygdala, 

Dulcis, 476. 

Appearance like last, but taste bitter with flavor of oil 

of bitter almonds Amygdala 

Amara, 476. 

Oblong, somewhat kidney-shaped, 2.5 to 3 cm. long; 
chocolate brown, with broad black groove on con- 
vex side Physostigma, 477. 

Oval, about 2 to 2.5 cm. long; with thin, fragile, red- 
dish-brown shell Theobroma, 478. 

Oblong, 4 to 5 cm. long; blackish-brown, wrinkled; odor 

vanilla-like Dipterix, 479. 

Oval, flat, about 1.5 cm. long; black, brownish-black 

or pale yellowish-brown with black edges Citrullus, 480. 

Oval, flat, about 2 cm. long; whitish Pepo, 481. 

Oblong-lanceolate, obtusely two-edged, 1.5 to 2.5 cm. 

long; grayish-green, silky hairy Strophanthus, 481. 

Medium-sized Seeds; with well-marked albumen: 

Plano-convex, oval, grooved on flat side; about 1 cm. 

long; greenish-brown Caffea, 482. 

Flattish-tetrahedral, about 5 to 7 mm. long, externally 

retieulately ridged; brownish Staphisagria, 483. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 601 

Lanceolate, angular, about 6 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm. 
thick at thickest end; glossy brownish-black; often 
mixed with the 3-celled capsules Sabadilla, 484. 

Little or no albumen; two cotyledons : 

Ovate or ovate-oblong, triangularly compressed, about 
8 mm. long; brown, with grayish epithelial scales; 
mucilaginous Cydonium, 485. 

Oblong-lanceolate, flat, thin, sharply two-edged, about 

10 to 12 mm. long; whitish Cucumis, 486. 

Subglobular, about 6 to 8 mm. in diameter; scarlet- 
red with black spot Abrus, 486. 

Small Seeds; well- marled albumen: 
Angular, often adhering to one another; about 3 mm. 

long; brownish-yellow Cardamom! 

Semen, 487. 
Obovate or nearry globular, finely pitted, 1 to ^ mm. 

in diameter; reddish-brown Colchici Semen, 488. 

Kidney-shaped, flattened, pitted, about 3 mm. long; 

brownish-black Stramonii 

Semen, 488. 
Kidney-shaped, flattened, reticulately wrinkled, 1 to 

1.5 mm. long; gray or yellowish-gray Hyoscyami 

Semen, 489. 
Very small seeds, about 0.75 mm. long, oblong, reticu- 
lated, brownish; acrid Lobeliae Semen, 489. 

Kidney-shaped, reticulately wrinkled, pitted, about 1 

mm. long, yellowish-white Papaveris 

Semen, 490. 
Angular, obscurely tetrahedral, roughly nodulated or 

warty, about 1.5 to 2 mm. long; black Delphinium, 490. 

Globular, about 2 to 3 mm. in diameter, grayish or 

dirty white; peppery taste Piper Album, 460. 

Little or no albumen; two cotyledons: 

Oblong-ovate, flattened, 4 to 5 'mm. long; glossy 

brown Linum, 491. 

Almost globular, finely pitted, with circular hilum; 

about 1 mm. in diameter; reddish-black Sinapis Nigra, 492. 

Almost globular, finely pitted, with circular hilum; 

about 1.5 to 2 mm. in diameter; yellowish Sinapis Alba, 493. 

Almost globular, nearly smooth; about 2 to 2.5 mm. in 

diameter; bluish or brownish-black Semen Rapas, 493. 

Oblong-angular, almost cubical, with a projection on 

one side; about 3 to 4 mm. long and about 2 mm. 

broad; brownish Fcenum Graecum, 494. 



602 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Group LXVII 

Cotyledons or Seed Leaves 

Ovate, fleshy, plano-convex cotyledons about 2.5 to 3 

cm. long and half as broad; yellowish Quercus Semen, 495. 

Elongated, fleshy; plano-convex cotyledons, up to 4 

cm. long; brownish -black Pichurim Majus, 496. 

Similar to last, but only about 2 cm. long, ovate; 

brownish-black Pichurim Minus, 496. 

Bound, flattish-ovate, plano-convex or irregular, some- 
what contorted cotyledons; brownish or reddish- 
brown Cola, 497. 

Group LXVIII 

Arilli or Adventitious Seed-Coats 

Fleshy, irregularly lobed and cleft bands, orange- 
brown; fragrant Macis, 498. 

Group LXIX 

Parts of Plants, Not Easily Recognizable as Such ; Whole 

Filiform, much-branched, horny, translucent thallus . . . Chondrus, 117. 

Dark-brown or nearly black thallus with large air- 
vesicles Fucus, 119. 

Long, round, stemlike, but without nodes and with- 
out cell differentiation within Laminaria, 120. 

Mixture of several small sea-weeds Corsican Moss, 120. 

Irregularly lobed lichens, brownish-gray above and 

grayish-white below Cetraria, 121. 

Flat, brown lichen, with oval prominences on one side 

and corresponding depressions on the other side. . . Sticta, 122. 

Fusiform, purplish-black grains, from 2 to 5 cm. long. .Ergota, 123. 

Irregular brown-black masses, partly membranaceous, 

partly pulverulent Ustilago, 125. 

White, tough, light masses or fragments Agaricus, 126. 

Brown, pliable, velvety sheets Spunk, 126. 

Semi-fluid, viscid, frothy substance Yeast, 126. 

Bound, dark-brown masses, pulverulent within Puff-ball, 127. 

Light-yellow, very mobile and inflammable powder. . . Lycopodium, 128. 

Flatfish rhizomes, lobed, peeled, brownish, yellowish, 

or white from being limed Zingiber, 241. 

Narrow slices, up to 5 cm. long and 10 to 15 mm. wide; 

thickest in middle; yellowish-white Scilla, 262. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 603 

Slender cylindrical, sometimes curved pieces, spongy, 

white Sassafras Pith, 273. 

Similar to last, but thicker and yellowish in color. . . .Elder Pith, 273. 

Elongated, somewhat angular, scaly, unopened flower- 
heads, 2 to 3 mm. long; grayish-green Santonica, 386. 

Subcylindrical calyx-tube with 4 teeth terminated by 
a corolla forming a globular head; brown; fra- 
grant Caryophyllus, 392. 

Separate stigmas, or 3 attached to a style, linear- 
tubular, about 3 cm. long; deep reddish -brown. . . .Crocus, 405. 

Cylindrical, about 4 to 5 cm. long and 5 mm. thick, 

spirally nodulated, stalked, grayish-brown Piper Longum, 420. 

Oval or round grains, 2 to 4 mm. long, yellowish-white, 
whiter at ends, yellowish-brown groove along one 
side Pearled Barley, 466. 

Ovate, fleshy, plano-convex cotyledons, about 2.5 to 3 

cm. long and half as broad; yellowish Acorns, 495. 

Elongated or ovate, fleshy plano-convex cotyledons, 

from 2 to 4 cm. long; brownish-black Pichurim, 496. 

Fleshy, irregularly lobed and cleft bands, orange-brown, 

fragrant Macis, 498. 

Eound, hard, more or less nodulated, about 2 cm. in 

diameter; dark-colored Galla, 511. 

Irregularly lobed, hollow thin-walled shells Chinese Galls, 512. 

Similar to last, but hairy and grayish Japanese Galls, 512. 

Round, spongy, orange or yellowish-brown, up to 5 cm. 

or more in diameter American Galls, 512. 

Group LXX 

Parts of Plants Not Keadily Recognizable as Such; Cut or 
Otherwise Altered 

Cylindrical or cake-like masses, very hard, reddish- 
brown ; odorless Guarana, 504. 

Black pieces, having the structure of wood, but con- 
sisting mainly of carbon; or black, odorless and 
tasteless powder, not gritty Carbo Ligni, 504. 

Irregular brown-black masses, partly membranaceous, 

partly pulverulent Ustilago, 125. 

White, tough, light masses Agaric, 126. 

Thin, brown, pliable, velvety sheets Spunk, 126. 

Small, conical, light-brown, peeled, or glossy, dark 
brown, unpeeled pieces of fronds mixed with 
pieces of rhizome; green within Aspidium, 130. 

Fragments" of light porous roots, with thin grayish- 
brown bark under which is a net-work of lighter- 
colored fibro-vascular bundles Methysticum, 175. 



604 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Short, brownish-gray sections, wood spongy and bark 

easily separable, and flaring at cut ends Stillingia, 180. 

Tough, spongy sections with irregular bundles Sumbul, 189. 

Transverse and longitudinal sections of a thick fleshy 

root with radiating bundles; grayish-brown Inula, 192. 

Large, round or plano-convex, orange-yellow pieces of 

root, peeled Rheum, 201 . 

Transverse sections, greenish-gray outer surface, yel- 
lowish on cut surfaces Calumba, 204. 

Grayish-white transverse sections, hard, with promi- 
nent radiating and concentric lines Bryonia, 205. 

Decorticated roots, externally and internally white, 

mealy and fibrous Althaea, 206. 

Small, cubical, white pieces, about 3 to 4 mm. in size; 

peculiar odor Althaea, 207. 

Longitudinal and transverse sections, with projecting 
white wood-bundles alternating with yellowish- 
gray parenchyma Phytolaccae 

Radix, 207. 

ODConicai, olackish-gray, witn snriveled lighter-colored 
rootlets; sometimes cut into halves or quarters 
longitudinally, or into transverse slices Veratrum Viride, 215. 

Obconical to subglobular, annulate, orange-brown; 
sometimes cut into transverse slices which are 
grayish-brown; slices sometimes strung on strings . Trillium, 217. 

Longitudinal slices of rhizome, yellowish-brown, whit- 
ish within; show traces of nodes Polygonatum, 220. 

Long, slender, yellowish-brown slices of rhizome; in 
section plano-convex or concavo-convex; taste aro- 
matic Calamus, 239. 

Thin, straw-like pieces, hollow, about 1 cm. long Triticum, 240. 

Slender, nearly straight pieces, smoothly trimmed, 6 
to 8 cm. long, white or cream-white, perforated to 
one end Finger Orris, 246. 

Ovate, orange-brown disks or longitudinal slices of a 
thick rhizome; or circular transverse slices; odor 
and taste resembling ginger Zedoarla, 247. 

Kidney-shaped grayish- white slices Colchici Cormus, 257. 

Transverse slices with dark-gray epidermis and mealy- 
white surfaces Arum, 259. 

Narrow slices, up to 5 cm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad, 

yellowish, diaphanous, brittle Scilla, 262. 

Short, pale, grayish-green pieces of twigs, with smooth- 
cut ends; usually hollow Dulcamara, 270. 

Slender, cylindrical, sometimes curved pieces, spongy 

or pithy, white Sassafras 

Medulla, 273. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 605 

An irregularly coarse, grayish-brown powder, mixed 

with many tough, coarse fibers Quercus Alba, 349. 

Leaves rolled into small pellets or cylinders, grayish- 
green, bluish-green to blackish Thea, 359. 

Separate stigmas, or three attached to a style, linear- 
tubular, about 3 cm. long; deep orange-brown with 
reddish tinge Crocus, 405. 

Oval grains, about 2 to 4 mm. long, or round grains half 
as large, yellowish-white, whiter at ends, yellowish- 
brown groove along one side Hordeum 

Perlatum, 466. 

Orange-red, irregularly lobed, fleshy bands; fragrant; 

often broken Macis, 498. 

Group LXXI 

Trichomes 

Vegetable Glands: 
Granular, mobile, brick-red powder; no odor and little 

taste Kamala, 506. 

Brownish-yellow to yellowish-brown powder; aromatic 

and bitter Lupulinum, 507. 

Vegetable hairs: 
Delicate white curling hairs, from 2 to 4 cm. long. . . . Gossypium, 508. 
Glistening, brownish-red silky powder, consisting of 

hairs about 2 to 3 mm. long Mucuna, 509. 

Curling, glossy-brown, soft and delicate hairs, from 2.5 

to 5 cm. long Penghawar, 133. 

Liable to be taken for liairs or glands: 
Irregular, brown-black masses, partly membranaceous, 

partly pulverulent Ustilago, 125. 

Light-yellow, very mobile powder Lycopodium, 128. 

Hardly liable to mistake: 

Separate stigmas, or three attached to a style, linear- 
tubular, about 3 cm. long; deep orange-brown with 
reddish tinge Crocus, 405. 

Tufts of soft, silky, thread-like, yellowish fibers, about 
15 cm. long; the ends often matted together and 
dark-brown Zea, 407. 

Group LXXII 

Excrescences 

Round, hard, more or less nodulated, about 2 cm. in 

diameter; dark-colored; often with round holes. . . . Galia, 511. 



606 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Irregularly lobed, hollow, thin-walled, slightly downy 

or smooth, brownish Chinese Galls, 512. 

Similar to last, but hairy and grayish Japanese Galls, 512. 

Eound, spongy, orange or yellowish-brown, up to 5 cm. 

or more in diameter American Galls, 512. 

Group LXXIII 

Starches 

Polyhedric granules, often adherent in clusters; uni- 
form, with well-marked hilum Corn Starch, 516. 

Lenticular or oval, medium-sized and small granules; 

layers and hilum indistinct Wheat Starch, 516. 

Ovate, large, layers very distinct; hilum at narrow 

end, small but distinct Potato Starch, 517. 

Polyhedric or angular, very small, uniform; hilum and 

layers indistinct Rice Starch, 517. 

Ovate, medium-sized, layers and hilum distinct; hilum 

at broad end and often cracked or cleft Arrowroot 

Medium-sized, ovate, oblong, elliptic or irregular, often Starch, 518. 
truncate at one end; layers and hilum distinct, 
the latter generally cleft Sago Starch, 518. 

Medium-sized, irregular, often muller-shaped granules; 

layers indistinct; hilum near rounded end Tapioca Starch, 519. 

Macroscopic appearance : 

Small, round, pearly, white or brownish, opaque or 

slightly translucent lumps Sago, 515. 

Irregular lumps, white and opaque, or slightly translu- 
cent Tapioca, 515. 

Group LXXIV 

Acids 

Colorless, right-rhombic crystals; deliquesce in moist 

air; acid taste Acidum 

Citricum, 522. 
Colorless monoclinic prisms, or crystalline crusts; per- 
manent in air; acid taste Acidum 

Tartaricum, 522. 

Groups LXXV and LXXVI 

Inspissated Juices and Extracts 

Inspissated Juices (Group LXXV) : 
Irregular subglobular cakes, brown, with remnants of 
leaves or species of rumex fruit adhering to outer 
surface; heavy narcotic odor Opium, 525. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 607 

Hard, orange-brown, opaque masses, with resinous frac- 
ture; odor suggests saffron Aloe, 526. 

Small, angular, shining, brittle pieces, ruby-red trans- 
parent in small fragments; odorless Kino, 527. 

In quarter-sections of plano-convex cakes, or in irregu- 
lar pieces; grayish-brown Lactucarium, 527. 

Extracts (Group LXXVI) : 

Irregular, broken masses, brittle, dark-brown; sweetish 

astringent taste Catechu, 528. 

Irregular lumps or small cubes, about 2.5 cm. in size, 

reddish-brown Gambir, 529. 

Dark-brown, almost black cakes or fragments; often 

cakes enclosed in paper boxes Logwood 

Extract, 529. 

In round, black sticks, with an impression of trade- 
mark at one end; or, in large black lumps; very 

sweet Liquorice 

Extract, 529. 

Sometimes in flat, scaly fragments, more commonly as 

a thick extract-like mass, in jars Trench 

Lactucarium, 530. 
Apt to be mistaken for an extract: 

Cylindrical or cake-like masses, very hard, reddish- 
brown ; odorless Guarana, 504. 

Group LXXVII 

Sugars 

White, hard, crystalline granules; very sweet Saccharum, 531. 

Cylindrical crystalline masses; transparent, and very 

sweet Rock Candy, 531. 

Yellowish granules or masses; sweet Glucose, 532. 

Flatfish, yellowish-white, porous flakes; honey-like odor 

and sweet taste Manna, 532. 

Bear in mind also the animal sugars: 
Cylindrical crystalline masses; yellowish-white, opaque; 

sweetish Saccharum Lactis, 45. 

Syrupy, sweet, aromatic, sometimes granular liquid. . . .Mel, 48. 

Group LXXVIII 

Gums 

Indistinct, transparent, crackled, colorless to yellowish 

or brown tears; soluble in water Acacia, 533. 

In wavy and curved flakes, whitish, translucent; swells 

in water Tragacantha, 534. 



608 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Group LXXIX 

Gum Resins 

Deep reddish, or orange-yellow cylindrical solid or hol- 
low pieces, or cakes; bright lemon-yellow when 
wetted or powdered Cambogia, 536. 

Greenish-black or dark-grayish, more or less porous 

masses Scammonium, 536. 

Irregularly roundish tears, often hollow or enclosing 

foreign substances; yellowish, or yellowish-brown . . Euphorbium, 537. 

Brownish, sticky mass; containing whitish, tears in a 

pinkish-brown substance; odor very fetid Asafcetida, 537. 

In separate tears, or in masses, dirty white to pale- 
brown externally, bluish-white opalescent within; 
peculiar odor and bitter taste Ammoniacum, 538. 

Tears or masses, friable, reddish-brown, with fatty or 

waxy fracture Myrrha, 538. 

Yellowish translucent tears, generally rough and pow- 
dery externally from attrition Olibanum, 539. 

Small, whitish to yellowish-brown translucent tears, 

with peculiar odor and acrid bitter taste Galbanum, 539. 

Group LXXX 

Resins 

Roundish, pale-yellowish, transparent, brittle tears; be- 
coming plastic when chewed Mastiche, 542. 

Elongated, pale-yellowish, transparent tears; crumbling 

when chewed Sandaraca, 543. 

Eoundish, yellowish or straw-colored transparent 

masses harder than rosin Dammara, 543. 

Irregular spherical or angular, yellowish to brownish 

pieces; transparent, hard Copal, 543. 

Brittle, dark reddish-brown, opaque lumps Resina Draconis, 544. 

Brittle, dark reddish-brown, opaque sticks; often 

wrapped in palm-leaves Resina Draconis, 544. 

Irregular brittle masses, or large tears; greenish-brown 

to reddish-brown Guaiaci Resina, 545. 

Small twigs surrounded by a brown-red resinous sub- 
stance Lacca, 545. 

Thin, brittle, brown or reddish -brown scales Shellac, 545. 

Roundish or flat, pale-yellowish to brownish-red pieces; 

dull exterior, glossy transparent within; hard . . . . Succinum, 546. 

Yellowish or brownish, transparent, brittle masses. ... Resina, 547. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 609 

Group LXXXI 

Oleo-Eesins 

Transparent, more or less viscid liquid; yellowish- 
brown; peculiar odor and bitter acrid taste Copaiba, 548. 

Tough, plastic, nearly solid yellowish mass; terebin- 

thinate odor and taste Terebinthina, 549. 

Soft, yellowish mass, granular within; odor fennel-like 

and taste terebinthinate Elemi, 549. 

Thick viscid, clear transparent, pale-yellowish liquid; 

odor terebinthinate Terebinthina 

Canadensis, 550. 

Thick viscid liquid, similar to last, but turbid Terebinthina 

Veneta, 550. 

Yellowish-brown opaque mass; plastic by warmth of 
hand, brittle when cold; conchoidal translucent 
fracture Pix Burgundica, 551. 

Dark reddish-brown opaque mass; brittle when cold; 

fracture resinous, translucent, conchoidal Pix Canadensis, 551. 

Thick blackish-brown, sticky viscid liquid, empyreu- 

matic terebinthinate odor Pix Liquida, 551. 



Group LXXXII 

Balsams 

A solid brown mass with whitish tears imbedded in 

it; strong balsamic odor Benzoinum, 553. 

Nearly solid yellowish-brown substance of uniform con- 
sistence; strong balsamic odor Balsamum 

Tolutanum, 554. 

A thick, syrupy brownish-black liquid; somewhat 

smoky balsamic odor Balsamum 

Peruvianum, 554. 

Thick, viscid, gray, opaque, semi-solid substance; with 

agreeable balsamic odor Styrax, 555. 

Thick, brownish-yellow, clear liquid, or almost solid 

substance; odor balsamic Liquidambar, 555. 

Group LXXXIII 

Volatile Oils 

A clear, limpid liquid with terebinthinate odor Oleum Tere- 

binthinae, 557. 
List of volatile oils 557-562. 



610 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Group LXXXIV 

Fixed Vegetable Oils and Fats 

Solid Vegetable Fats: 

Consistence of tallow, yellowish-white, odor of choco- 
late Butynun Cacao, 564. 

Consistence of tallow, mottled white and brownish, 

odor of nutmeg Butynun 

Nucistse, 564. 

Solid diaphanous substance resembling white wax. . . . Paraffinum, 565. 

Bear in mind also the animal fats: 
Hard, white, somewhat glossy masses (see Group VI) . Acidum 

Stearicum, 44. 
White solid, fatty masses (see Group VI) Sevum, 44. 

Semi-solid fats: 

Of the consistence of butter or lard, granular, green. .Oleum Lauri, 565. 

Of the consistence of butter, white; disagreeable odor. .Oleum Cocois, 566. 

Of the consistence of butter, orange-colored; violet- 
like odor Oleum Palmse, 566. 

Of the consistence of a cerate or ointment, yellowish; 

slightly fluorescent Petrolatum, 566. 

Bear m mind also the animal fats : 
Soft, white, unctuous fatty substance (see Group VII) . Adeps, 47. 
Soft, yellowish white fatty substance (see Group VII) .Adeps Lanae, 47. 

Liquid Oils: 
Thin, clear, pale-yellow oil' with nutty odor and bland 

taste 01. Amygdalae 

Expr., 567. 
Pale yellow oil without odor, and with a bland nutty 

taste 01. Gossypii 

Semenis, 567. 
Yellowish to yellowish-brown oil, with peculiar odor 

and bland taste 01. Lini, 567. 

Pale yellow, or light greenish-yellow oil; peculiar odor 

and nutty taste 01. Olivae, 568. 

Viscid, nearly colorless oil; odor mildly nauseous, taste 

bland but afterwards acrid 01. Ricini, 568. 

Yellowish oil, odorless, and with a bland, nutlike taste. 01. Sesami, 569. 
Yellowish-brown to deep brown, somewhat viscid; odor 

unpleasant and taste acrid 01. Tiglii, 569. 

Bear in mind also the animal oils: 
Yellowish to brownish oil with fishy odor (see Group 

VIII) 01. Morrhuae, 49. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE GROUPS OF DRUGS 611 

Pale yellowish or colorless fixed oil (see Group VIII) . 01. Adipis, 50. 
Pale yellow to yellowish-brown oil (see Group VIII) . . 01. Bubulum, 50. 

Group LXXXV 

Peculiar Concrete Substances 

White, translucent, crystalline masses; peculiar pene- 
trating odor and bitterish pungent taste Camphora, 570. 

In cakes, balls, hollow bottle-shaped or irregular pieces, 

blackish-brown, very elastic Elastica, 570. 

Grayish or yellowish-gray masses, streaked interiorly; 

not markedly elastic Gutta Percha, 571. 

Light friable, grayish-green nattish fragments; taste 

acrid bitter Elaterium, 571. 

Group LXXXVI 

Coloring Matters 

More or less firm, brittle masses; blue to purplish; in- 
soluble in water Indigo, 572. 

Small, rectangular, blue or bluish cakes; colors water 

blue Litmus, 572. 

A purplish-red powder, imparting a beautiful color to 

diluted alcohol Persio, 573. 

Thick, deep reddish-purple liquid, with ammoniacal 

odor Orchil, 573. 

Usually an orange-red paste; sometimes dry and friable 

cakes Annatto, 573. 



THERAPEUTICAL TERMS 



Abortif acient : Causes abortion. 

Acid: Neutralizes alkaline condition of blood. 

Adjuvant: Assists action of main remedy. 

Aliment: Nutriment or food. 

Alkaline: Neutralizes acid condition of blood. 

Alterative: Gradually improves nutritive processes. 

An., Ant., or Anti: A prefix meaning il opposed to." 

Anaesthetic: Produces loss of sensation. 

Analgesic: Believes pain. 

Anaphrodisiac : Reduces sexual desire. 

Anodyne: Relieves pain. 

Antacid: Neutralizes acid condition of blood. 

Antalkaline: Neutralizes alkaline condition of blood. 

Antarthritic : Against gout and rheumatism. 

Antasthmatic : Relieves asthmatic attacks. 

Antemetic: Checks vomiting. 

Anthelmintic: Kills intestinal worms. 

Antidote: Counteracts action of poisons. 

Antigonorrhceic: Cures gonorrhoea. 

Antihysteric : Opposed to hysteria. 

Antilithic: Prevents formation of stone in bladder. 

Antinephritic : Beneficial in kidney troubles. 

Antiperiodic: Cures malarial fevers. 

Antiphlogistic: Reduces excessive bodily temperature. 

Antipyretic: Reduces excessive bodily temperature. 

Antirheumatic: Of benefit in rheumatism. 

Antiscorbutic: Against scurvy. 

Antiseptic: Prevents putrefaction; destroys germs. 

Antispasmodic: Relieves cramps and spasms. 

Antisquamous: Against scaly skin diseases. 

Antistrumatic: Against scrofula. 

Antizymotic: Prevents fermentation or contagion. 

Aperient: A gently purgative remedy or diet. 

Appetizer: Improves appetite and digestion. 

Aphrodisiac: Increases sexual vigor and desire. 

Aromatic: Spicy; stimulates appetite and digestion. 

Aseptic: Free from disease germs. 

Astringent: Contracts tissues; checks secretions. 

Bitter: With bitter taste; stomachic and tonic. 

612 



THERAPEUTICAL TERMS 61, 



Blennorrhetic: Increases mucous secretions. 

Carminative: Expels flatus from bowels. 

Catalytic: Same as alterative. 

Cathartic: Purgative; stronger than a laxative. 

Caustic: Destroys or burns tissues by chemical action. 

Chalybeate: Contains iron in solution. 

Cholagogue: Increases flow of bile. 

Conspergative: Dusting powder. 

Corrective: Prevents disagreeable action of drugs. 

Corrosive: Destroys tissues. 

Cosmetic: Preparation to beautify skin, etc. 

Counter-irritant: Checks pain by external irritation. 

Deliriant: Produces delirium. 

Demulcent: Allays irritations; used internally. 

Dentifrice: For cleaning teeth. 

Deobstruent: Eemoves obstructive accumulations. 

Deodorant: Destroys foul and unhealthful odors. 

Depilatory: Eemoves superfluous hairs. 

Depressant: Sedative; allays irritability. 

Depresso-Motor: Lowers activity of motor nerves. 

Diaphoretic: Increases perspiration. 

Disinfectant: Destroys infectious germs. 

Diuretic: Increases secretion of urine. 

Drastic Cathartic: A powerful purgative. 

Ecbolic: Aids in child-birth by contracting the womb. 

Eccritic: Promotes secretions and excretions. 

Eliminant: Promotes excretions. 

Emetic: Causes vomiting. 

Emetico-Cathartic: Causes vomiting and purging. 

Emmenagogue: Stimulates menstrual functions. 

Emollient: Allays irritation; used externally. 

Errhine: Increases nasal discharge. 

Escharotic: Destroys tissue and produces scar. 

Evacuant: Increases evacuations. 

Excipient: Gives flavor or consistence to medicines. 

Excitant: A stimulating remedy. 

Excito-Motor: Stimulates motor nerve-centers. 

Expectorant: Increases expectoration (from bronchi). 

Febrifuge: Cures fevers. 

Galactagogue : Increases flow of milk from breast. 

Gargle: For rinsing throat. 

Germicide: Destroys disease germs. 

Hematic: Acts on and through blood. « 

Hemostatic: Arrests hemorrhage. 

Hydragogue Cathartic: Causes profuse watery stools. 

Hypnotic: Produces sleep. 

Inebriant: Produces inebriation. 



614 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

Insecticide: Destroys insects. 

Irritant: Causes irritation. 

Laggniappe: Gratuity to a purchaser. 

Laxative: Mild cathartic. 

Lenitive: Soothing; slightly laxative. 

Lithontriptic : Dissolves calculi in bladder or kidney. 

Motor-Depressant: Lowers activity of motor nerves. 

Motor-Excitant: Stimulates motor nerve-centers. 

Mydriatic: Causes dilatation of pupil of eye. 

Narcotic: Depresses and may destroy nerve action. 

Nauseant: Produces nausea and relaxation. 

Nephritic: Beneficial in kidney troubles. 

Nervine: Nerve stimulant and tonic. 

Neurotic: Acts on and through the nerves. 

Nutrient or Nutritive: Nourishing. 

Parasiticide: Destroys parasites. 

Parturient: Facilitates child-birth. 

Poison: Impairs health; may destroy life. 

Protective: Aseptic or soothing dressing for wounds. 

Purgative: Cathartic; evacuates bowels. 

Refrigerant: Cools; allays heat and thirst. 

Restorative: Restores tissues to healthy condition. 

Rubefacient: Counter-irritant; reddens the skin. 

Sedative: Allays nervous irritability. 

Sialagogue: Increases flow of saliva. 

Solvent: Dissolves morbid secretions and deposits. 

Somniferant: Produces sleep. 

Soporific: Produces sleep. 

Spinant: Muscular excitant through spinal nerves. 

Sternutatory: Causes sneezing. 

Stimulant: Increases functional activity. 

Stomachic: Stimulates appetite and digestion. 

Styptic: Arrests hemorrhage. 

Sudorific: Increases perspiration. 

Suppurant: Causes suppuration. 

Taenicide or Taenifuge: Destroys tapeworms. 

Tonic: Promotes nutrition. 

Topical: A local remedy. 

Vaso-Motor: A vascular stimulant. 

Vermifuge: Destroys and expels intestinal worms. 

Vesicant: Produces blisters. 

Vulnerary: Useful in healing wounds. 

Zymic or Zymotic: Caused by fermentation. 



POSTSCRIPT 



I wish to acknowledge special indebtedness to the following 
sources of information which have been consulted in writing* the 
text: 

Pharmacopceia of the United States. 
Handbuch der Botanischen Pharmacognosy : Schleiden. 
Pharmazeutische Waarenkunde : Berg. 
Organic Materia Medic a : Maisch. 
Pharmacographia : Flueckiger and Hanbury. 
United States Dispensatory. 
National Dispensatory. 
American Dispensatory. 
College Botany : Bastin. 
Lessons and Manual of Botany : Gray. 
Text Book of Botany : Sachs. 

Elements of Pharmacognosy ; Flueckiger and Tschirch. 
American Pharmaceutical Association Proceedings, and the 
Pharmaceutical Journals of the United States. 

Most of the illustrations are from original pen-and-ink draw- 
ings by the author, made direct from actual specimens, those most 
characteristic having been chosen for this purpose. Quite a number 
of the drawings, however, have been re-drawn from illustrations in 
other works, and special acknowledgment is due to : 

Atlas zur Pharmazeutischen Botanik: Berg; and Anatomi- 
scher Atlas zur Pharmazeutischen Waarenkunde : Berg. 

Years ago the author made a large number of drawings of drugs 
for the Companion to the U. S. P., Qldberg and Wall ; thanks are 
due to Messrs. Wm. Wood & Co., publishers of the Companion, 
for permission to use those drawings for the present volume. 

Most of the specimens from which drawings were made were 
obtained from the collections belonging to the St. Louis College 
of Pharmacy and to the author, but thanks for specimens of drugs 
are due also to Messrs. Meyer Brothers Drug Co., and J. S. Mer- 

615 



616 HANDBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY 

rell Drug Co., of St. Louis, to S. B. Benick & Co., New York, to 
Prof. Henry H. Rusby, of the New York College of Pharmacy, 
and especially to the late Dr. Charles Rice, for more than twenty 
years chairman of the Committee for the Revision of the United 
States Pharmacopoeia. To these two gentlemen the author is 
indebted for a complete collection of authenticated barks official 
in the pharmacopoeia, the indigenous barks having been collected 
by botanists under their direction for the use of the committee. 
It is the hope of the author that this work on pharmacognosy 
may be of service to students of pharmacy, as w r ell as to the active 
pharmacist, for whose use in the daily routine of business this 
book has mainly been written. 

0. A. WALL. 



INDEX 



Abrus, 486 
Absinthium, 94 
Acacia, 533 
Achillea, 94 
Acid, citric, 522 

stearic, 44 

tartaric, 522 
Acids, 522 
Aconite leaf, 378 

root, 197 
Acorn, 495 

Acrogenous structure, 159 
Acrogens, 116 
Adeps, 47 
Adeps lanae, 47 
Adiantum, 131 
Admixture, 90 
Adulteration, 89 
Agar-agar, 118 
Agaric, 126 

Agaricus chirurgorum, 126 
Alder, black, 341 

tag, 317 
Aletris, 222 
Aleurone, 82 
Algae, 117 
Alkaloids, 30 
Alkanet, 211 
Allium, 261 
Allspice, 455 
Almond, bitter, 476 

oil, expressed, 567 

sweet, 476 
Alnus rubra, 317 
Aloe, 526 
Alstonia constricta, 334 

scholaris, 335 
Althaea, 206 
Althaeae flores, 396 
Amber, 546 
Ambergris, 46 
American Colombo, 212 

gentian, 212 

ipecac, 235 

isinglass, 36 

mistletoe, 267 

sarsaparilla, 249 
Ammoniac, 538 

Amorphus vegetable drugs, 520 
Amygdala amara, 476 

dulcis, 476 



Amygdalae oleum expr., 567 
Amylum, 516 

marantae, 518 

oryzae, 517 

solani, 517 

tritici, 516 
Anacardium, 457 
Anatomy, 12 
Anethum, 441 
Angelica fruit, 443 
Angelica root, 189 
Animal charcoal, 44 

drugs, 32 
Anise, 437 

star, 427 
Annatto, 573 
Annual rings, 156 
Anthemis, 389 
Antophylli, 451 
Apii fructus, 442 
Apium, 442 
Apocynum, 177, 178 

androsaemi-folium 178 
Apocynum cannabinum, 177 
Apple, 450 

Aralia nudicaulis, 249 
Arbor vitae, 268 
Archie, 573 
Areca nut, 475 
Argols, 522 
Arnica flowers, 388 
Arnica root, 224 
Arnotta, 573 
Arrow-root, 518 
Arum, 259 
Asafoetida, 537 
Asarum, 234 
Asclepias, 187 
Asclepias incarnata, 232 
Ash, white, 338 
Aspidium, 130 
Aspidosperma, 324 
Aurantia immatura, 450 
Aurantii amari cortex, 461 

dulcis cortex, 462 

flores, 393 

fructus, 413 

fructus immaturi, 450 
Australian fever bark, 334 
Ava kava, 175 
Avens, 236 



617 



618 



INDEX 



B 

Bael fruit, 464 

Balm, 103 

Balsam, Canada, 550 

mounts, 62 

of fir, 550 

Peru, 554 

tolu, 554 
Balsams, 552 
Barberry bark, 321 
Bardanae radix, 210 
Bark, 149, 285 

curvature of, 294 
Barks, methods of grouping 

structure, 282 
Barley, 435 

pearled, 466 
Bast, 290 
Bast-cells, 292 
Bearberry leaves, 356 
Beech tar, 552 
Beeswax, 42 
Belae fructus, 464 
Belladonna leaves, 368 

root, 200 
Bengal quince, 464 
Benne seed oil, 569 
Benzoin, 553 
Berberis, 321 
Betel nut, 475 
Beth root, 217 
Bhang, 115 
Bile, 49 
Birch tar, 552 
Bird pepper, 447 
Birth root, 217 
Bistort, 250 
Bitter apple, 448 

orange peel, 461 

root, 178 
Bitter sweet, 270 
Black alder, 341 
Black cohosh, 229 
Black haw, 345 
Black Indian hemp, 177 
Black snake-root, 229 
Blackberry root bark, 320 
Bladderwrack, 119 
Blatta, 34 
Blistering fly, 33 
Blood root, 252 
Blue cohosh, 230 
Blue flag, 217 
Boldo, 361 
Boletus, 127 
Bone, 40 
Bone-black, 44 
Boneset, 95 



296 



Bork, 288 

Botanical classification, 17 
Botany, 15, 51 
Brake-root, 132 
Branches, 262 

parts of, 272 
Brayera, 382 
Brazil wood, 280 
Broom, 106 
Bryony, 205 
Bryophytes, 116 
Buchu, 355 
Buckthorn bark, 344 

berries, 455 
Buds, flower, 381 

leaf, 349 
Bugleweed, 101 
Bulbs, 260 
Burdock fruit, 434 

root, 210 
Burgundy pitch, 551 
Butter of cacao, 564 

of nutmeg, 564 
Butternut bark, 332 
Butyrum cacao, 564 

nucistae, 564 

C 

C. Constituents of drugs, 30 

Cacao, 478 

Cacao butter, 564 

Cactus grandiflorus, 271 

Caffea, 482 

Calabar bean, 477 

Corvey, Job 2395, Wall, Aug. 23, 2 

Calamus, 238 

Calculi cancrorum, 41 

Calendula, 398 

Calisaya bark, 303 

Calumba, 204 

Cambium, 148 

Cambogia, 536 

Campeachy wood, 281 

Camphor, 570 

Canadian balsam, 550 

hemp, 177 

pitch, 551 

snake root, 234 

turpentine, 550 
Canary seed, 436 
Canella, 313 
Cannabis, 114 
Cannabis fructus, 435 
Cantharis, 33 
Cantharis vittata, 34 
Caoutchouc, 570 
Capsicum, 447 
Caraway, 440 



INDEX 



619 



Carbo animalis, 44 

ligni, 504 
Cardamom, 426 

seed, 487 
Carota, 444 
Carrageen, 117 
Carrot fruit, 444 
Carthamus, 399 
Carum, 440 

Caryophylli fructus, 451 
Caryophyllus, 392 
Caseara sagrada, 343 
Cascarilla, 311 
Cashew nut, occidental, 457 
Cassia bark, 308 

fistula, 432 

purging, 432 
Castanea, 372 
Castor leaf, 375 

oil, 568 
Castoreum, 37 
Cataria, 100 
Catechu, 528 

pale, 529 
Catnep, 100 
Caulophyllum, 230 
Cayenne pepper, 447 
Celandine, 109 
Celery seed, 442 
Cell, 75 

collenchymatous, 85 

for microscopic mounts, 65 

parenchymatous, 83 

pitted, 86 

prosenchymatous, 83 

sclerenchymatous, 83 

shapes of, 77 

sizes of, 76 

vegetable, 75 
Cellulose, 75 
Cell wall, 75, 82 
Cera alba, 43 

flava, 42 
Ceratonia, 432 
Cereus grandiflorus, 271 
Cetaceum, 43 
Cetraria, 121 
Cevadilla, 484 
Ceylon cinnamon, 309 
Chamomile, 389 

Dog, 390 

English, 389 

German, 390 

Roman, 389 

wild, 390 
Charcoal, animal, 44 

vegetable, 504 
Chelidonium, 109 



Chemistry, 12 
Chenopodium, 421 
Cherry bark, wild, 315 
Chestnut leaf, 372 
Chicle gum, 571 
Chicorv root,187 
Chilles, 447 
Chimaphila, 265 
China root, 246 
Chinese fly, 34 
Chionanthus, 347 
Chirata, 99 
Chittem bark, 343 
Chocolate, 479 

bean, 478 
Chondrus, 117 
Churrus, 115 
Cibotium, 133 
Cichorium, 187 
Cimicifuga, 229 
Cinchona, 299 

Calisaya, 303 

pale, 306 

red, 305 

yellow, 303 
Cinnamon, cassia, 308 

Ceylon, 309 

Saigon, 310 
Citri fructus, 412 
Citric acid, 522 
Citrullus, 480 
Civet, 48 
Classification, of drugs, 16 

physical, 22 

therapeutical, 21 
Closed bundles, 159 
Clover, red, 384 
Cloves, 392 
Coca, 357 
Cocculus, 454 
Coccus, 33 
Cochineal, 33 
Cockroach, 34 
Cocoa bean, 478 
Cocoanut oil, 566 
Cod liver oil, 49 
Coffee, 482 
Cohosh, black, 229 

blue, 230 
Cola, 497 
Colchicum corm, 257 

seed, 488 
Colla, 45 

Collenchyma, 85, 135, 468 
Collenchymatous cells, 85 
Collinsonia, 236 
Colocynth, 448 



620 



INDEX 



Colombo, 204 

American, 212 
Colophony, 547 
Coloring matters, 572 
Comfrey, 209 
Composite, 93 
Condurango, 330 
Conium fruit, 439 

leaf, 379 
Constituents of drugs, 30 
Convallaria flowers, 383 

rhizome, 216 
Copaiba, 548 
Copal, 543 
Coptis, 110 
Coriander, 437 
Corinthians, 450 
Cork, 83 
Corms, 254 
Corn flower, 400 
Corn starch, 516 
Cornsilk, 407 
Cornsmut, 125 
Cornus circinata, 313 

florida, 312 

sericea, 313 
Corallas, 400 
Corsican moss, 120 
Corydalis, 256 
Cosmoline, 566 
Coto bark, 340 
Cotton, 508 

root bark, 326 

seed oil, 567 
Cotula, 390 
Couch grass, 240 
Cousso, 382 
Cowhage, 509 
Crabstones, 41 
Cramp bark, 329 
Cranesbill, 252 
Cremocarps, 423 
Crocus, 405 
Croton oil, 569 
Cryptogams, 116 
Cubeb, 452 
Cucha leaf, 357 
Cucumber seed, 486 
Cucumis, 486 
Cudbear, 573 
Culver's physic, 233 

root, 233 
Cuminum, 438 
Cundurango, 330 
Cuprea bark, 306 
Curcuma, 244 
Currants, 450 
Cusso, 382 



Cutch, 528 
Cutin, 141 
Cuttlefish bone, 40 
Cyani flores, 400 
Cydonium, 485 
Cynosbata, 409 
Cypripedium,219 

D 

D. Description of drugs, 28 
Damiana, 358 

false, 358 
Dammar, 543 
Dandelion, 186 
Daucus, 444 
Delphinium, 490 
Diagnosis, 13 
Di-cotyledonons, 140 
Digitalis, 369 
Dill, 441 
Dioscorea, 221 
Diospyros, 414 
Dipterix, 479 
Direction of sections, 138 
Dita bark, 335 
Dog chamomile, 390 
Dog grass, 240 
Dogsbane, 178 
Dogwood bark, 312 

Jamaica, 333 

round-leaved, 313 

swamp, 313 
Draconis resina, 544 
Dracontium, 218 
Dragon's blood, 544 
Drawing with microscope, 73 
Drugs, animal, 32 

definition of, 14 

vegetable, 50 
Dry mounts, 57 
Duboisia, 362 
Ducts, 86, 137 
Dulcamara, 270 

E 

Egg, 35 
Elastica, 570 
Elaterium, 571 
Elder flowers, 395 

pith, 273 
Elecampane, 192 
Elemi, 549 
Elm bark, 337 
Endogenous structure, 143 
Endophloem, 286 
Equisetaceae, 129 
Equisetum, 129 
Ergot, 123 
Eriodyction, 266 



INDEX 



621 



Erj throxylon, 357 
Eucalyptus, 354 
Euonymus, 328 
Eupatorium, 95 
Euphorbium, 537 
Excrescences, 510 
Exogenous structure, 14G 
Exophloeum, 285 
Extracts, 528 



False sarsaparilla, 249 
False unicorn, 222 
Fats, fixed, 30 
Fel bovis, 49 
Fennel, 440 
Fenugreek, 494 
Fermentum, 126 
Fernambuco, 280 
Ferns, 129 

Fever bark, Australian, 334 
Fibro-vascular bundles, 138, 141, 146, 
147 

closed, 159 

open, 159 
Ficus, 418 
Fig, 418 
Filices, 129 
Filix mas, 130 
Finger orris, 245 
Fish-berry, 454 
Fixed oils and fats, 562 
Flax seed, 491 
Florentine orris, 245 
Flores cinae, 386 

naphae, 393 

rhoeadis, 403 

sambuci, 395 
Flowering tops, 91 
Flower heads, 387 
Flowers, 381 
Foeniculum, 440 
Foenum graecum, 494 
Foxglove, 369 
Fractures in drugs, 28 
Frangula, 344 
Frankincense, 539 
Frasera, 212 
Fraxinus, 338 
Fringetree bark, 347 
Fruits, 40S 
Fucus, 119 

Fundamental tissue, 142, 146 
Fungi, 123 
Fustic, 282 



G 



Galanga, 243 
Galbanum, 539 



Galls, 511 
Gambir, 529 
Gamboge, 536 
Ganja, 114 
Garden rue, 380 
Garlic, 261 
Gaultheria, 263 
Gelatin, 46 
Gelsemium, 173 
Gentian, 203 

American, 212 
Gentianaceae, 98 
Geranium, 252 
Geum, 236 
Gillenia, 235 
Ginger, 241 

wild, 234 
Ginseng, 190 
Glandes quercus, 495 
Glands, 137 
Glucose, 532 
Glucosides, 30 
Glue, 45 
Glycerin mounts, 67 

jelly mounts, 65 
Glycyrrhiza, 172 
Glycyrrhizae extractum, 529 
Golden rod, 97 

seal, 228 
Goldthread, 110 
Gossypii radicis cortex, 326 

seminis oleum, 567 
Gossypium, 508 
Graminis rhizoma, 240 
Granati fructus cortex, 463 
Granatum, 347 
Grape sugar, 532 
Grindelia, 96 
Group 1, 576, 32 
Group 2, 576, 32 
Group 3, 576, 35 
Group 4, 577, 35 
Group 5, 577, 39 
Group 6, 577, 41 
Group 7, 577, 47 
Group 8, 578, 48 
Group 9, 578, 48 
Group 10, 579, 117 



Group 11, 


579, 


121 


Group 12, 


579, 


123 


Group 13, 


579, 


128 


Group 14, 


579, 


129 


Group 15, 


580, 


129 


Group 16, 


580, 


162 


Group 17, 


580, 


169 


Group 18, 


580, 


177 


Group 19, 


580, 


181 


Group 20, 


581, 


184 


Group 21, 


581, 


196 



622 



INDEX 



Group 22 
Group 23 
Group 24 
Group 25 
Group 26 
Group 27 
Group 28 
Group 29 
Group 
Group 
Group 
Group 
Group 
Group 
Group 
Group 
Group ~ 
Group 39 : 
Group 40 
Group 41 
Group 42, 
Group 43 : 
Group 44, 
Group 45 
Group 46 
Group 47 
Group 48 
Group 49 
Group 50 
Group 51 
Group 52 
Group 53 
Group 54 
Group 55, 
Group 56, 
Group 57, 
Group 58, 
Group 59 
Group 60 
Group 61 
Group 62 
Group 63, 
Group 64 
Group 65, 
Group 66 
Group 67 
Group 68 
Group 69 
Group 70 
Group 71 
Group 72 
Group 73 
Group 74 
Group 75 
Group 76 
Group 77 
Group 78 
Group 79 ; 
Group 80 



I, 582 


214 


5, 583 


223 


t, 583 


227 


>, 584 


237 


5, 584 


237 


r, 584 


, 241 


5, 584 


248 


), 585 


250 


), 585 


255 


., 585 


257 


i, 585 


260 


1, 586 


262 


t, 586 


263 


>, 586 


268 


J, 586 


270 


\ 586 


273 


\, 587 


276 


1, 587 


278 


), 587 


299 


, 587, 


307 


!, 589 


323 


I, 589 


335 


t, 590 


339 


i, 590 


349 


1, 591, 


349 


, 591 


353 


1, 592 


364 


, 592, 


367 


), 593 


376 


., 593 


381 


!, 593 


386 


1, 594 


387 


:, 594, 


392 


, 594, 


394 


1, 595 


400 


', 595, 


404 


1, 595 


409 


>, 595 


411 


>, 596 


414 


., 596 


415 


!, 596, 


421 


, 598 


444 


t, 598 


452 


, 599, 


458 


1, 600 


468 


', 602 


494. 


I, 602 


497 


1, 602 


500 


>, 603, 


502 


, 605, 


505 


5, 605 


510 


, 606, 


513 


t, 606 


522 


1, 606 


523 


5, 606 


523 


r , 607 


530 


i, 607, 


533 


1, 608 


535 


>, 608 


540 



Group 81, 609, 548 
Group 82, 609, 552 
Group 83, 609, 555 
Group 84, 610, 562 
Group 85, 611, 569 
Group 86, 611, 572 
Groups of drugs, 22, 575 
Guaiac resin, 545 

wood, 278 
Guarana, 504 
Guaza, 114 
Gum Arabic, 533 

resins, 535 
Gummi gutti, 536 
Gums, 533 
Gunjah, 114 
Guru nuts, 497 
Gutta percha, 571 

H 

H. Habitat of drugs, 27 
Haematoxyli extractum, 529 
Haematoxylon, 281 
Hamamelis bark, 342 

leaf, 372 
Hasheesh, 116 
Hedeoma, 101 
Hellebore, American, 215 
Helminthocorton, 120 
Helonias, 222 
Hemlock fruit, 439 

leaf, 379 

pitch, 551 
Hemp, black Indian, 177 

Canadian, 177 

Indian, 114 

white Indian, 232 

seed, 435 
Henbane, 113 

seed, 489 
Herbs,' 91 
Hips, 409 
Hirudo, 32 
Histology, 12 

vegetable, 74 
Hoarhound, 103 
Hollyhock flowers, 396 
Honey, 48 
Hops, 416 
Hoptree bark, 322 
Hordeum, 435 

perlatum, 466 
Horsemint, 105 
Horse-tail, 129 
Humulus, 416 
Hydrangea, 176 
Hydrastis, 228 
Hyoscyamus, 113 

seed, 489 



INDEX 



623 



Hyphae, 135 
Hyraceum, 47 



Iceland moss, 121 
Ichthyocoila, 35 
Ignatia, 474 
Illicium, 427 
Imperatoria, 194 
Incense, 539 
India rubber, 570 
Indian hemp, 114 
black, 177 
white, 232 

physic, 235 

tobacco, 107 

turnip, 259 
Indicum, 572 
Indigo, 572 

Inspissated juices, 523 
Intercellular spaces, 136 
Inula, 192 
Inulin, 81 
Ipecac, American, 235 

cartegena, 182 
Ipecacuanha, 181 
Iris florentina, 245 

versicolor, 217 
Irish moss, 117 
Isinglass, 35 



Jaborandi, 366 

Jalap, 184 

Jamaica dogwood bark, 333 

Jasmine, yellow, 173 

Jequirity bean, 486 

Jimson weed, 373 

Juglans, 332 

Juices, inspissated, 523 

berries, 417 

tar, 552 

wood, 279 



K 



Kamala, 506 
Kava, 175 
Kefir, 127 
Kino, 527 
Kola, 497 
Kousso, 382 
Krameria, 169 



Labiatse, 99 
Lac, 545 
Lacca, 545 
Lacmus, 572 



Lactucarium, French, 530 

German, 527 
Lady's slipper, 219 
Laminaria, 120 
Lapathe radix, 208 
Lapilli cancrorum, 41 
Lappa, 210 
Lappae fructus, 434 

radix, 210 
Lard, 47 

oil, 50 
Larkspur seed, 490 
Latex, 87 

Laticiferous ducts, 87 
Laurel leaf, 361 
Laurel oil, 565 
Laurus, 361 
Lavandula, 396 
Lavender flower, 396 
Leaf buds, 349 
Leaves, 350 

structure of, 350 
Leech, 32 
Leguminosae, 106 
Lemon fruit, 412 

peel, 466 
Leptandra, 233 
Levant wormseed, 386 
Levisticum, 193 

fruit, 442 
Lichen Islandica, 121 

pulmonarius, 122 
Lichens, 121 
Licorice extract, 529 

root, 172 
Lignin, 83 
Lignum citrinum, 282 

guaiaci, 278 

haematoxyli, 281 

santali, 278 

vitae, 278 
Ligustici fructus, 442 
Lily of the valley flowers, 383 
Lily of the valley root. 216 
Limon, 412 
Limonis cortex, 466 
Linden flowers, 385 
Linseed, 491 
Linseed oil, 567 
Linum, 491 
Liquid ambar, 555 
Liquorice extract, 529 
Liquorice root, 172 
Liriodendron, 319 
Litmus, 572 
Lobelia, 107 

seed, 489 
Lobeliaceae, 107 
Logwood, 281 



624 



INDEX 



Logwood extract, 529 
Long pepper, 420 
Loveage fruit, 442 

root, 193 
Lungmoss, 122 
Lupulin, 507 
Lycoperdon, 127 
Lycopodiaceae, 128 
Lycopodium, 128 
Lycopus, 101 

M 
Mace, 498 
Magnolia, 318 
Maidenhair fern, 131 
Majorana, 102 
Malefern, 130 
Mallow flower, 396 
Malt, 436 
Malum, 410 
Malvae flores, 396 
Mandrake, 248 
Mangosteen, 465 
Manna, 532 
Manzanita, 363 
Maple sugar, 532 
Marigold, 398 
Marjoram, 102 
Marrubium, 103 
Marshmallow, 206 
Masterwort, 194 
Mastic, 542 
Matico, 371 
Matricaria, 390 
May apple, 248 
Mayweed, 390 
Maw seed, 490 
Medulla, 146 
Medulla sambuci, 273 
Medulla sassafras, 273 
Medullary ravs, 153 
Mel, 48 
Melissa, 103 
Menispermum, 231 
Mentha piperita, 104 
Mentha viridis, 104 
Meristem, 146 
Mesophloeum, 286 
Metamorphosis, 74 
Method of study, 27 
Methysticum, 175 
Mezereum, 327 
Microphotographs, 68 
Microscopic mounts, dry, 57 

in balsam, 62 

in fluids, 67 

in glycerine jelly, 65 
Microscopy, 12, 52 
Milfoil, 94 



Milk sugar, 45 
Milkweed, swamp, 232 
Mistletoe, 267 
Monarda, 105 
Monkshood leaf, 378 

root, 197 
Mono-cotyledonous, 140 
Moschus, 36, 45 
Mother cloves, 451 
Mucuna, 509 
Mullein flowers, 402 

leaf, 374 
Musk, 36, 42 

root, 189 
Mustard, black, 492 

white, 493 
Mylabris, 34 
Myristica, 472 
Myrrh, 538 

N 

N. Names of drugs, 27 
Neatsfoot oil, 50 
Neutral principles, 30 
Night-blooming cereus, 271 
Non-cellular vegetable drugs, 512 
Nucleolus, 75 
Nucleus, 75 
Nucleus sheath, 143 
Nutgalls, 511 
Nutmeg, 472 

butter, 564 

oil, 564 
Nux moschata, 472 
Nux vomica, 473 

O 

O. Origin of drugs, 27 

Oak bark, 349 

Odor, 19, 29 

Oil of almonds, 567 

of cade, 552 

of sesami, 569 

of turpentine, 557 
Oils, fixed, 20, 562 
Oils, volatile, 30, 555 
Oleo-resins, 548 
Oleum adipis, 50 

amygd. expressum, 567 

bubulum, 50 

cadinum, 552 

cocois, 566 

gossypii seminis, 567 

lauri, 565 

lini, 567 

morrhuae, 49 

myristicai expressum, 564 

nucistae, 064 



INDEX 



625 



Oleum — Cont 'd. 

olivae, 568 

palmae, 566 

ricini, 568 

sesami, 569 

terebinthinae, 557 

theobromatis, 564 

tiglii, 569 
Olibanum, 539 
Olive oil, 568 
Open bundles, 159 
Opium, 525 
Orange, 413 

berries, 450 

flowers, 393 

peel, bitter, 461 
curacao, 462 
sweet, 462 
Orchil, 573 
Origanum, 102 
Orleana, 573 
Orris root, 243 
finger, 245 
Os, 40 

sepiae, 40 
Ovum, 35 
Ox-gall, 49 



Paku-kidang, 133 
Pale rose, 401 
Palm oil, 566 
Palmae Christi root, 256 
Panax, 190 
Papaver, 429 
Papaveraceae, 109 
Papaveris semen, 490 
Pappoose root, 230 
Paprika, 447 
Paracoto bark, 340 
Paraffin, 565 
Pareira brava, 170 
Parenchyma, 135 
Parenchymatous cells, 83 
Parilla, yellow, 231 
Parsley fruit, 441 

root, 195 
Parts of branches, 272 
Passulae majores, 449 

minores, 450 
Pasque flower, 111 
Pathology, 13 
Pearl barley, 466 
Peculiar concrete substances, 569 
Pellitory, 191 
Penghawar, 133 
Pennyroyal, 101 
Pepo* 481 ' i 



Pepper, African, 447 

bird, 447 

black, 446 

Cayenne, 447 

long, 420 

red, 447 

white, 460 
Peppermint, 104 
Permanent mounts, 56 
Pernambuco wood, 280 
Persian insect powder, 391 
Persimmon, 414 
Persio, 573 

Peruvian balsam, 554 
Peruvian bark, 299 
Petrolatum, 566 
Petroselini fructus, 441 
Petroselini radix, 195 
Phalaris fructus, 436 
Pharmaco-dynamics, 16 
Pharmacognosy, 14 
Pharmacognosy system, 22, 
Pharmacology, 13 
Pharmacy, 15 
Phellandrium, 438 
Phloem, 154 
Phoradendron, 267 
Photo-micrographs, 68 
Physical classification, 22 
Physics, 11 
Physiology, 12 
Physostigma, 477 
Phytolaccae fructus, 451 
Phytolaccae radix, 207 
Pichurim, 496 
Pili slezolobu, 509 
Pilocarpus, 366 
Pimenta, 455 
Pimpernel, 196 
Pimpinella. 196 
Pine tar, 552 
Pink root, 230 
Piper album, 460 
Piper longum, 420 
Piper nigrum, 446 
Pipsissewa, 265 
Piscidia, 333 
Pitch Burgund}', 551 

Canada, 551 

hemlock, 551 
Pith, 136, 146 
Pith elder, 273 

sassafras, 273 
Piths. 273 
Pitted cells, 86 
Pix Burgundica, 551 

Canadensis, 551 
Pix liquida, 551 



626 



INDEX 



Pleurisy root, 187 
Podophyllum, 248 
Poison ivy, 37V 
Poison oak, 377 
Poke berry, 451 
Poke root, 207 
Polygonatum, 220 
Polypodium, 132 
Pomegranate bark, 347 
Pomegranate rind, 463 
Pomum, 410 
Poplar buds, 350 
Poppy, 429 
Poppy flowers, 403 
Poppy seed, 490 
Populi gemmae, 350 
Postscript, 615 
Potato bug, 34 
Potato starch, 507 
Prayer beads, 486 
Prickly ash bark, 345 
Prickly ash fruit, 433 
Prince's pine, 265 
Prinos, 341 
Procambium, 159 
Prognosis, 13 
Prosenchyma, 135 
Prosenchymatous cells, 83 
Protein grains, 80 
Protoplasm, 75 
Prune, 453 

Prunus Virginiana, 315 
Pseudo-parenchyma, 135 
Ptelea, 322 
Pteudophytes, 116 
Puffball, 127 
Pulsatilla, 111 
Pulu, 133 
Pumpkin seed, 481 
Purging cassia, 432 
Pyrethrum, 19.1 
Pyrethrum flowers, 391 

Q 

Quaker buttons, 473 
Quassia, 276 
Quebracho, 324 
Quebracho, false, 325 

white, 324 
Queen's root, 180 
Quercus alba, 349 
Quercus semen, 495 
Quick grass, 240 
Quillaja, 337 
Quince, Bengal, 464 
Quince seed, 485 



E 

Radix Ivarancusae, 168 

Palmae Christi, 257 
Eaisins, 449 
Ranunculaceae, 110 
Rape seed, 493 
Raphides, 79 
Raspberry, 415 
Red cloves, 384 

rose, 402 
Red saunders, 280 
Resina, 547 
Resina draconis, 544 
Resina guaiaci, 545 
Resins, 31, 540 
Rhamni cathart. fruct., 455 
Rhamnus Purshiana, 343 
Rhatany, 169 
Rheum, 201 
Rhizomes, 212 
Rhoeadis nores, 403 
Rhois glabrae cortex, 331 
Rhois glabrae fructus, 456 
Rhubarb, 201 
Rhus glabra, 456 

Radicans, 377 

Toxicodendron, 377 
Rice starch, 517 
Ricinus leaf, 375 
Ricinus oil, 568 
Rock-brake, 132 
Rock candy, 531 
Roots, 161 

fleshy, 183 

structure of, 134 

woody, 169 
Rosa canina, 409 
Rosa centifolia, 401 
Rosa Gallica, 402 
Rose hips, 409 
Rose, pale, 401 
Rose, red, 402 
Rosemary, 362 
Rosin, 547 
Rosmarinus, 362 
Rottlera, 506 
Rubus, 320 
Rubus Tdaeus, 415 
Rue, ?S0 
Rumex, 208 
Ruta, 380 

S 

Sabadilla, 484 
Sabal, 453 
Sabina, 269 
Saccharum, 531 
Saceharum lactis, 45 



INDEX 



627 



Saccharum — Cont 'd. 

Uveum, 532 
Safflower, 399 
Saffron, 405 

American, 399 

Spanish, 405 
Sage, 359 
Sago, 518 

Sargon cinnamon, 310 
Saint John's Bread, 432 
Salep, 256 
Salix, 336 
Salvia, 359 
Sambucus, 395 

pith, 273 
Sandal wood, 278 
Sandarac, 543 
Sanguinaria, 252 
Sanguis draconis, 544 
San t alum rub rum, 280 
Santonica, 386 
Saponaria, 209 
Sarsaparilla, 162 

American, 249 

false, 249 
Sassafras, 314 
Sassafras nuts, 496 
Sassafras pith, 273 
Savin, 269 
Saw Palmetto, 453 
Scammony, 536 
Schizocarps, 423 
Scilla, 262 
Sclerenehyma, 135 
Sclerenchymatous cells, 83 
Sclecogen, 83 
Scoparius, 106 
Scopola, 251 
Scouring rush, 129 
Scutellaria, 106 
Sea tangle, 120 

Sections of drugs, 50, 54, 58, 138 
Seed leaves, 494 
Seeds, 468 
Semecarpus, 458 
Semen contra, 3S6 
Senega, 202 
Senna, 364 
Serpentaria, 226 
Sesami olem, 569 
Seven barks, 176 
Sevum, 44 
Shellac, 545 
Shikimi fruit, 428 
Shrubby- trefoil bark, 322 
Siliqua dulcis, 432 
Simaruba, 317 
Sinapis alba, 493 



Sinapis nigra, 492 
Sizes of cells, 76 
Skullcap, 106 
Skunk cabbage, 218 
Slippery elm bark, 337 
Snake root, Canada, 234 

Senega, 202 

Virginia, 226 
Soap bark, 337 
Soapwort, 209 
Solanaceae, 113 
Solidago, 97 
Solomon's seal, 220 
Sophistication, 90 
Spanish fly, 33 
Spearmint, 104 
Spermaceti, 43 
Spigelia, 230 
Spirit of turpentine, 557 
Sponge, 39 
Spunk, 126 
Spurious rings, 158 
Squaw root, 230 
Squill, 262 
Squirrel corn, 256 
St. John's bread, 432 
Staphisagria, 483 
Star anise, 427 
Star grass, 222 
Starch, 80 

Nature of, 513 
Starches, 513 
Stavesacre, 483 
Stearic acid, 44 
Steins, structure of, 134 
Sticta, 122 
Stigmas, 404 
Stillingia, 180 
Stinkweed, 373 
Stone-cells, 84, 289 

root, 236 
Storax, 555 
Stramonium leaf, 373 

seed, 488 
Strophanthus, 481 
Structure, acrogenous, 159 
Structure, endogenous, 143 
Structure, exogenous, 146 
Structure, root, 134 

stem, 134 
Styrax, 555 
Suber, 83 
Substitution, 90 
Succinum, 546 
Suet, 44 
Sugar, 531 
Sugar, grape, 532 
Sugar of milk, 45 



628 



INDEX 



Sugars, 530 
Sumach bark, 331 

berries, 456 
Sumbul, 189 
Swamp dogwood, 313 
Swamp milkweed, 232 
Sweet flag, 238 

gum, 555 

oil, 568 

of almonds, 567 
Symphetum, 209 
Synopsis of groups, 575 

drugs, 575 
Systems of tissues, 88 



Tabaeum, 375 
Tag alder, 317 
Tallow, 41 
Tamarind, 459 
Tamnis, 31 
Tanacetum, 97 
Tansy, 97 
Tapioca, 519 
Tar, 551 
Taraxacum, 186 
Tartaric acid, 522 
Taste, 19, 29 
Tea, 359 
Terebinthina, 547 

Canadensis, 550 
Terebinthinae oleum, 551 
Terra Japonica, 528 
Thallogens, 116 
Thallophytes, 116 
Thea, 359 
Thebaicum, 525 
Theobroma, 478 
Theobromatis oleum, 564 
Therapeutical classification, 21 

terms, 612 
Therapeutics, 16 
Thornapple leaf, 373 
Thoroughwort, 95 
Thudace, 530 
Thuja, 268 
Thus, 539 
Tilia, 385 

Tissues, cellular, 88 
Tobacco, 375 
Tolu balsam, 554 
Tonco, 479 
Tonka bean, 479 
Tormentilla, 253 
Toxicodendron, 377 
Tracheids, 86 
Tragacanth, 534 
Trefoil bark, 322 



Trichomes, 505 
Trifolium, 384 
Trillium, 217 
Triticum, 240 
Tubers, 254 
Tulip-tree bark, 319 
Turkey corn, 256 
Turkey pea, 256 
Turmeric, 244 
Turpentine, 549, 557 

Canada, 550 

oil, 557 

Venice, 550 
Twigs or branches, 262 

U 

Uses of drugs, 31 
Ulmus, 337 
Unicorn, false, 222 

root, 222 
Urticaceae, 114 
Ustilago, 125 
Uva ursi, 356 
Uvae passae, 449 

V 

Valerian, 224 

American, 219 
Vanilla, 430 
Vascular acrogens, 116 
Vaseline, 566 
Vegetable charcoal, 504 

drugs, 50 

histology, 74 

without cellular structure, 512 
Venice turpentine, 550 
Veratrum viride, 215 
Verbascum, flores, 402 

leaves, 374 
Vetivcrt, 168 
Viburnum opulus, 329 
Viburnum prunifolium, 345 
Virginia snake root, 226 
Vitta, 424 
Volatile oils, 555-562 

W 

Waferash, 322 
Wahoo, 328 

southern, 328 
Water avens, 236 

fennel, 438 

hemlock, 438 
Watermelon seed, 480 
Wax, white. 43 

yellow, 42 
Wheat starch, 516 



INDEX 



629 



White agaric, 126 

ash, 338 

glue, 46 

Indian hemp, 232 

oak bark, 349 

wax, 43 
Wild cherry bark, 315 

ginger, 234 

yam, 221 
Willow bark, 336 
Wintergreen, 263 
Witchhazel bark, 342 

leaf, 372 
Wood, 274 

structure of, 274 
Woods, 274 
Woolfat, 47 
Wormseed, American, 421 

Le van tie, 386 
Wormwood, 94 



Xanthoxyli cortex, 345 

fructus, 433 
Xanthoxylum, 345 
Xvlem, 148 



Yam, wild, 221 

Yarrow, 94 

Yeast, 126 

Yellow dock, 208 
jasmine, 173 
parilla, 231 
wax, 42 

Yerba santa, 266 



Zea, 407 
Zedoary, 247 
Zingiber, 241 



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